Two types of tests are reported in this thesis: (1) tests of push -out specimens and (2) tests of composite cellular T -beams. The components of the composite members tested were short lengths of steel I -beams and concrete ribbed slabs. The ribbed slabs were formed by the inclusion of cellular sheet steel decking. Various rib sizes were used by varying the cell height and cell width of the decking. The components of a specimen were tied together by stud shear connectors. The tests were made to investigate the influence of cell geometry on the behaviour of composite cellular members and to provide a rational approach to their design. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

Yes / This paper describes a sequence of experiments on a long-span asymmetric composite cellular beam. This type of beam has become very popular, combining the composite action between the steel and concrete with the increased section depth, compared with more commonly used solid-web I sections. Openings in the steel web also reduce the self-weight and can accommodate the passage of service ducts. Eurocode 4 recommends a high degree of shear connection for asymmetric composite beams despite the practical difficulties in achieving this. Recent research suggests that the required degree of shear connection could be reduced, particularly for beams that are unpropped during construction. However, little test data exists to verify the behaviour of unpropped composite cellular beams. Therefore two series of tests were conducted on a 15.26 m long asymmetric composite cellular beam with regular circular openings and an elongated opening at the mid-span. The degree of shear connection was 36%, less than half of that recommended in Eurocode 4, and the beam was unpropped during construction. The beam was subjected to uniformly distributed loading and shear load during the tests. The end-slip, mid-span vertical deflection, shear connector capacity and strain distribution were examined. The beam failed at an applied uniform load of 17.2 kN/m2 (3.4 × design working load 5.0 kN/m2). The member withstood an applied shear load that was 45% higher than predicted, and exhibited a Vierendeel mechanism at the elongated opening. Overall, these tests demonstrated the potential of unpropped composite cellular beams with low degrees of shear connection. / RFCS

Limitações de altura têm sido impostas sobre edificações por regulamentos de zoneamento urbano e aspectos econômicos e estéticos. Além disso, para se proporcionar a passagem de tubulações de grande diâmetro sob vigas de aço, um pé-direito alto é normalmente requerido. Uma solução frequentemente utilizada em projeto diz respeito à abertura de furos na alma das vigas de aço para passagem das tubulações de serviço. Assim sendo, este trabalho de pesquisa objetiva a avaliação da resposta dinâmica de passarelas para pedestres, onde o projeto estrutural prevê a utilização de vigas celulares em aço. Objetiva-se verificar a influência das aberturas nas almas dessas vigas sobre a resposta dinâmica das passarelas. As ações dinâmicas representativas do caminhar dos pedestres são simuladas por meio de um modelo matemático que considera uma descrição espacial e temporal e, ainda, inclui o efeito do impacto do calcanhar humano. Os modelos estruturais investigados correspondem a passarelas mistas (aço-concreto) com 10m a 30m de extensão. São empregadas técnicas usuais de discretização, via método dos elementos finitos, por meio do programa Ansys. A resposta dinâmica das passarelas é obtida para duas situações distintas: vigas de alma cheia e vigas celulares. Uma avaliação crítica sobre a resposta dinâmica das passarelas possibilita verificar a influência dos furos nas almas das vigas metálicas, mediante a obtenção das acelerações de pico, focando aspectos associados ao conforto humano, considerando-se comparações com normas e recomendações de projeto. / Height limitations are frequent in multi-storey buildings due to zoning regulations, economic requirements and aesthetical considerations. Moreover, to provide for the passage of large diameter pipes in steel beams a high ceilings is usually required. The most adopted solution is the use of holes in the steel beams web in order to enable the passage of services. Therefore, the main objective of this research work is to evaluate the dynamic behaviour of footbridges, where structural design includes the use of cellular steel beams. The present study was carried out based on a load model developed to incorporate the dynamic effects induced by people walking. In this load model the transient effect due to the human heel impact was considered and the position of the dynamic load is changed according to individual position. The investigated structural model was based on a series of steelconcrete composite footbridges, with main spans varying from 10m to 30m. The proposed computational model, developed for the structural system dynamic analysis, adopted the usual mesh refinement techniques present in finite element method simulations, based on the Ansys program. The footbridges dynamic response was investigated considering two different design solutions: beams filled soul and cellular beams. The influence of the holes in the composite beams web over the footbridges dynamic response was investigated and the peak accelerations were obtained and compared with results supplied by design codes and recommendations aiming human comfort evaluations.

L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est de développer une approche analytique permettant de définir la charge ultime d’une poutre cellulaire à ouvertures sinusoïdales. En effet, l’évolution des techniques de production a permis le développement d’une nouvelle forme de poutre cellulaire munie d’ouvertures sinusoïdales : la poutre AngelinaTM. Cette nouvelle forme d’ouverture implique de nouveaux modes de ruine. De ce fait, en vue de développer un modèle de calcul analytique adapté à cette nouvelle forme d’ouverture, une campagne d’essais expérimentaux a été menée sur des poutres cellulaires à ouvertures sinusoïdales à grande échelle (≈10m). Au travers de ces études expérimentales sur trois configurations de poutre, nous avons montré que le principal mode de ruine est lié à la flexion Vierendeel. En effet, la flexion locale des membrures de l’ouverture la plus sollicitée engendre soit la formation de 4 rotules plastiques aux 4 coins de l’ouverture, soit l’instabilité locale des parois d’âme comprimées. Un modèle aux éléments finis a été développé sur le logiciel SAFIR afin d’analyser les différents modes de ruines observés. Ce modèle a été validé sur la base des résultats expérimentaux et nous a permis d’identifier deux points particuliers : d’une part l’existence d’un maintien rotationnel entre le montant intermédiaire et la paroi d’ouverture et d’autre part, la ruine de l’ouverture ne se produit qu’au travers d’un mécanisme combinant les ruines des différents quarts d’ouverture. Une seconde campagne d’études expérimentales et numériques a ensuite été menée sur des parties isolées, extraites des poutres préalablement testées, afin d’étudier de manière locale le comportement à la flexion des quarts d’ouverture. Ces études ont servi à valider un second modèle aux éléments finis, développé sur le logiciel Cast3m. Celui-ci nous a permis, au travers d’une étude paramétrique, de quantifier le maintien rotationnel apporté par le montant intermédiaire sur la paroi d’âme d’ouverture adjacente. Cette étude a confirmé l’importance de la rigidité apportée par le montant intermédiaire aux parois d’âme adjacente. Ainsi, cet apport de rigidité doit être pris en compte dans l’approche analytique pour définir de manière réaliste la résistance au voilement local des différentes parties d’une ouverture sinusoïdale. Finalement, cette thèse a abouti au développement d’un nouveau modèle analytique de calcul de la résistance ultime des parois d’une ouverture sinusoïdale. Du fait des éventuelles instabilités locales, le modèle analytique s’est appuyé sur des éléments théoriques de stabilité des plaques. De plus, une étude numérique détaillée du mécanisme de ruine d’une ouverture isolée nous a permis de justifier une approche cinématique de ruine de l’ouverture sinusoïdale. Cette approche combine les résistances ultimes des différents quarts d’ouverture. Le modèle analytique proposé permet de considérer à la fois la résistance ultime de chaque partie de l’ouverture et leurs modes de ruine. Une étude comparative avec des résultats numériques a montré que ce modèle est fiable et représentatif de la réalité pour caractériser l’état limite ultime des poutres cellulaires à ouvertures sinusoïdales. / The aim of this thesis is to develop an analytical approach so as to define the ultimate failure load of cellular beams with sinusoidal openings. Indeed, the evolution of the conception techniques led to the development of a new opening shape for cellular beams: the sinusoidal openings (AngelinaTM beam). This new opening shape involves new failure modes at ultimate limit state and cannot be calculated with existing methods. Thus, experimental tests have been carried out on full scale cellular beams with sinusoidal openings (≈10m span). It has been shown, through those experimental studies led on three beam configurations, that the main failure mode is linked to the Vierendeel mechanism. At ultimate limit state, the local bending of the members of the most stressed opening leads to either the formation of four plastic hinges or the local buckling of the compressed opening web panels. A finite element model has been developed on the software SAFIR in order to better understand the different observed failure modes. This model has been validated on the basis of the experimental results and allowed identifying two main points: firstly, the existence of a rotational restraint between the intermediate web-post and the opening web panel and secondly, the failure of the sinusoidal opening corresponds to a mechanism combining the failure of each opening quarters. A second experimental and numerical test campaign has been conducted on isolated parts of the previous tested beams, in order to study locally the behavior of the opening quarters under local bending. Those studies allowed validating a finite element model developed on Cast3m software. This model has been used for a parametrical study which allowed quantifying the rotational restraint supplied by the intermediate web-post on the adjacent opening panel. This study confirmed the importance of the stiffness supplied by the intermediate web-post to the opening panels. Thus, it has to be taken into account to get a representative analytical failure load of each opening quarter. Finally, this thesis led to the development of a new analytical model for the calculation of the ultimate strength of the different opening parts. Due to the possible local buckling, the model is based on theoretical elements on the stability of plates. Furthermore, a detailed numerical study of the mechanism of failure of an isolated opening allowed justifying a cinematic approach for the failure of the opening. This approach combines the ultimate strength of each opening parts. The proposed analytical model permits to consider each opening quarter failure mode and strength. A comparative study with finite element results has showed that this model is reliable and representative of reality for defining the ultimate limit state of cellular beams with sinusoidal openings.

Limitações de altura têm sido impostas sobre edificações por regulamentos de zoneamento urbano e aspectos econômicos e estéticos. Além disso, para se proporcionar a passagem de tubulações de grande diâmetro sob vigas de aço, um pé-direito alto é normalmente requerido. Uma solução frequentemente utilizada em projeto diz respeito à abertura de furos na alma das vigas de aço para passagem das tubulações de serviço. Assim sendo, este trabalho de pesquisa objetiva a avaliação da resposta dinâmica de passarelas para pedestres, onde o projeto estrutural prevê a utilização de vigas celulares em aço. Objetiva-se verificar a influência das aberturas nas almas dessas vigas sobre a resposta dinâmica das passarelas. As ações dinâmicas representativas do caminhar dos pedestres são simuladas por meio de um modelo matemático que considera uma descrição espacial e temporal e, ainda, inclui o efeito do impacto do calcanhar humano. Os modelos estruturais investigados correspondem a passarelas mistas (aço-concreto) com 10m a 30m de extensão. São empregadas técnicas usuais de discretização, via método dos elementos finitos, por meio do programa Ansys. A resposta dinâmica das passarelas é obtida para duas situações distintas: vigas de alma cheia e vigas celulares. Uma avaliação crítica sobre a resposta dinâmica das passarelas possibilita verificar a influência dos furos nas almas das vigas metálicas, mediante a obtenção das acelerações de pico, focando aspectos associados ao conforto humano, considerando-se comparações com normas e recomendações de projeto. / Height limitations are frequent in multi-storey buildings due to zoning regulations, economic requirements and aesthetical considerations. Moreover, to provide for the passage of large diameter pipes in steel beams a high ceilings is usually required. The most adopted solution is the use of holes in the steel beams web in order to enable the passage of services. Therefore, the main objective of this research work is to evaluate the dynamic behaviour of footbridges, where structural design includes the use of cellular steel beams. The present study was carried out based on a load model developed to incorporate the dynamic effects induced by people walking. In this load model the transient effect due to the human heel impact was considered and the position of the dynamic load is changed according to individual position. The investigated structural model was based on a series of steelconcrete composite footbridges, with main spans varying from 10m to 30m. The proposed computational model, developed for the structural system dynamic analysis, adopted the usual mesh refinement techniques present in finite element method simulations, based on the Ansys program. The footbridges dynamic response was investigated considering two different design solutions: beams filled soul and cellular beams. The influence of the holes in the composite beams web over the footbridges dynamic response was investigated and the peak accelerations were obtained and compared with results supplied by design codes and recommendations aiming human comfort evaluations.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:28:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 8690976 bytes, checksum: 44c939a6112d27b6f8696be3efc2044f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-16 / The growth of steel construction in Brazil in recent years has naturally been accompanied by an increasing demand for resources that support the entire design process of steel structures, from its conception to its realization. In this context, there has been a resurgence of interest in alveolar beams, due to technical and aesthetic advantages that these elements offer, motivated in part by beginning production of steel rolled I profiles in Brazil, from 2002. Generally, the alveolar beams are manufactured from rolled steel I-profiles, by cutting the web along, according to a sinuous symmetrical line so that the halves so obtained can be displaced relative to one another and welded, originating a new beam with a series of web holes, with the same mass as the original profile, but with greater stiffness in the plane of bending, suitable for large spans. Although the alveolar beams are an old solution, abandoned due to rising manufacturing costs in a given time, most recently returned to appear as a competitive solution, due to technological advances in automation of cutting and welding of structural steel. Given the wide range of possibilities available today for the manufacture of alveolar beams, facilitated by the resources of design and computer aided manufacturing, this study aimed to procedures to define the geometric characteristics of alveolar steel beams to floor systems and roof systems, due to the lack of technical updates on this topic. Finally, we present a series of examples of applying the criteria and procedures proposed for various possible situations in the usual structures. / A expansão do segmento da construção metálica no Brasil tem sido acompanhada de uma demanda crescente por recursos que subsidiem todo processo de projeto de estruturas de aço, desde sua concepção até sua materialização. Nesse contexto, observa-se o ressurgimento do interesse pelas vigas alveolares, em função das vantagens técnicas e estéticas que esses elementos oferecem, em parte motivado pelo início da produção de perfis I de aço laminados no Brasil, a partir de 2002. Geralmente, as vigas alveolares são fabricadas a partir de perfis I de aço laminados, cortando-se sua alma longitudinalmente, segundo um traçado sinuoso simétrico, de modo que as metades obtidas podem ser deslocadas uma em relação à outra e soldadas, dando origem a uma nova viga com uma série de furos na alma, com praticamente a mesma massa do perfil original, porém com maior rigidez no plano de flexão, apropriada para grandes vãos. Embora as vigas alveolares sejam uma solução antiga, abandonada devido ao aumento dos custos de fabricação em determinada época, mais recentemente voltaram a figurar como uma solução competitiva, devido aos avanços tecnológicos em automação de corte e solda de aço estrutural. Tendo em vista a ampla gama de possibilidades atualmente existente para a fabricação de vigas alveolares, facilitadas pelos recursos de projeto e fabricação assistidos por computador, este trabalho teve como objetivo desenvolver critérios e procedimentos para o prédimensionamento de vigas alveolares de aço, em função da carência de prescrições técnicas atualizadas sobre o tema. Ao final, é apresentada uma série de exemplos de aplicação dos critérios e procedimentos propostos, para diversas situações possíveis nas estruturas de edificações estruturadas em aço.

La présente thèse vise à caractériser le comportement mécanique à la ruine de poutres métalliques avec ouvertures, de formes et de tailles variables, renforcées ou non par raidisseurs. L’étude s’intéresse à des poutres de dimensions réalistes et s’appuie sur une combinaison de différentes approches : essais, modèles éléments finis et modèles analytiques. Les raidisseurs sont généralement utilisés pour corriger certaines faiblesses au niveau du comportement mécanique autour des ouvertures. Autour des ouvertures rectangulaires, ces raidisseurs, disposés verticalement ou horizontalement, ont fait l’objet de peu d’études scientifiques publiées. Généralement, le comportement des poutres à ouvertures d’âmes est considéré comme étant similaire à celui d’une poutre échelle (ou poutre Vierendeel) chargée aux noeuds. Cette hypothèse permet de considérer que les membrures de l’ouverture sont soumises à un moment fléchissant local bi-triangulaire sur la longueur de l’ouverture. Cependant, la distribution du moment fléchissant, et de ses contraintes axiales, le long d’une membrure peut s’avérer être plus complexe et dépend de la forme de l’ouverture (rectangulaire, hexagonale, circulaire, sinusoïdale ou quelconque), de la position de l’ouverture le long de la poutre et enfin, du type de chargement (concentré ou uniformément réparti). Plusieurs études numériques et expérimentales ont déjà été menées sur les poutres à ouvertures d’âmes et ont permis de développer différentes approches analytiques en vue de décrire leurs comportements. Cependant, ces modèles montrent certaines imprécisions ou insuffisances pour différents types et dimensions d’ouvertures notamment les ouvertures rectangulaires. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse font le point sur les principaux modèles existants de calcul de résistance des poutres avec ouvertures d’âmes. Ils présentent notamment leurs avantages et limites. Pour conforter les descriptions basées sur les analyses bibliographiques, une campagne expérimentale est réalisée pour valider un modèle éléments finis développé dans le cadre de l’étude. Les essais s’appuient sur des tronçons de poutres de dimensions réalistes avec différentes configurations d’ouvertures isolées renforcées ou non par des raidisseurs. Les mesures autour de l’ouverture utilisent des jauges de déformation pour analyser le profil des contraintes et son évolution, au cours du chargement, dans différentes sections critiques. Les essais sont menés jusqu’à la ruine qui s’est développée généralement par une combinaison de comportement élasto-plastique et d’instabilité locale autour des ouvertures. Certaines ruines se sont produites par rupture en traction-cisaillement de l’acier dans des zones critiques. Les analyses numériques et expérimentales ont permis d’étudier l’influence de différentes conditions sur la distribution des contraintes, notamment axiales, au sein d’une membrure d’ouverture, en vue d’évaluer son potentiel de voilement local qui reste un phénomène complexe à appréhender. Elles ont permis aussi de comprendre le fonctionnement mécanique des ouvertures renforcées par des raidisseurs de différentes dimensions et positions. L’étude paramétrique menée, en utilisant le modèle éléments finis validé par essai, a permis d’évaluer la pertinence des hypothèses retenues dans les approches analytiques existantes. Ces analyses ont permis aussi de proposer un modèle analytique tenant compte du comportement d’ouvertures isolées avec ou sans raidisseurs. / The present thesis aims to characterize the mechanical behavior to failure of steel beams with openings, with variable shapes and sizes, reinforced or not by stiffeners. The study considers beams of realistic dimensions and combines different approaches: tests, finite element models and analytical models. The stiffeners are generally used to improve some weaknesses in the mechanical behavior around the openings. Around rectangular openings, these stiffeners, in vertical or horizontal arrangements, have been the subject of limited number of scientific publications. In general, the behavior of beams with web openings is considered similar to that of Vierendeel beams with loads applied at the nodes. This hypothesis allows to consider that each frame around the opening is characterized by a bi-triangular local bending moment along the frame elements. In fact, the bending moment distribution, and their resultant axial stresses, along a frame can be more complex and depends on the shape of the opening (rectangular, hexagonal, circular, sinusoidal or any), the position of the opening along the beam and finally, the type of loading (concentrated or uniformly distributed). Several numerical and experimental studies have been conducted on the beams with web openings and different analytical approaches have been developed to describe and predict the behavior of these beams. However, these models show some inaccuracies or inadequacies depending on the types and dimensions of openings including rectangular openings. The work presented in this thesis examines the main existing models predicting the resistance for beams with web openings. It shows their advantages and limits based on the existing but limited results. To obtain additional and specific results to be used in the comparisons and to validate a finite element model developed within the framework of the study, an experimental campaign is carried out. The tests are focused on beams of real dimensions with different configurations of isolated openings reinforced or not by stiffeners. The measurements around the opening use strain gauges to analyze the stress profile and its evolution, during loading, in different critical sections. The tests are carried out until failure generally characterized by a combination of elastic-plastic behavior and local instability around openings. Some final failures occurred by tensile-shear fracture of steel in some critical zones. Numerical and experimental analyzes are performed to study the influence of various conditions on the stresses distributions, in particular axial stresses, within the frames around the openings. The stress distribution is mainly observed to evaluate the local buckling potential that remains a complex phenomenon difficult to predict. The results are also analyzed to understand the mechanical behavior of the openings reinforced by stiffeners of different dimensions and positions. The parametric study conducted using the validated finite element model allows evaluating the relevance of the assumptions considered in the existing analytical approaches. These analyzes made it possible to propose an analytical model taking into-account the behavior of isolated openings with or without stiffeners.

Cellular beams became increasingly popular as an efficient structural form in steel construction since their introduction. Their sophisticated design and profiling process provides greater flexibility in beam proportioning for strength, depth, size and location of circular holes. The purpose of manufacturing these beams is to increase overall beam depth, the moment of inertia and section modulus, which results in greater strength and rigidity. Cellular beams are used as primary or secondary floor beams in order to achieve long spans and service integration. They are also used as roof beams beyond the range of portal-frame construction, and are the perfect solution for curved roof applications, combining weight savings with a low-cost manufacturing process. The purpose of the current research is to study optimum design, ultimate load capacity under applied load and finite element analysis of non-composite cellular beams. The first part of the research program focuses on the optimum design of steel cellular beams using one of the stochastic search methods called &ldquo / harmony search algorithm&rdquo / . The minimum weight is taken as the design objective while the design constraints are implemented from the Steel Construction Institute. Design constraints include the displacement limitations, overall beam flexural capacity, beam shear capacity, overall beam buckling strength, web post flexure and buckling, vierendeel bending of upper and lower tees and local buckling of compression flange. The design methods adopted in this publication are consistent with BS5950. In the second part of the research, which is the experimental work, twelve non-composite cellular beams are tested to determine the ultimate load carrying capacities of these beams under using a hydraulic plug to apply point load. The tested cellular beam specimens have been designed by using harmony search algorithm. Finally, finite element analysis program is used to perform elastic buckling analysis and predict critical loads of all steel cellular beams. Finite element analysis results are then compared with experimental test results for each tested cellular beam.

[pt] Estruturas cada vez mais esbeltas têm sido usadas para otimizar edifícios de grande porte e reduzir custos, inclui-se nisto o pé-direito das edificações e portanto a altura das vigas. Grandes vãos são cada vez mais comuns, principalmente quando se utiliza aço em edificações, gerando então amplos espaços de serviço em uma direção, mas obstáculos na outra pela continuidade das vigas. A utilização de aberturas na alma das vigas para passagem de tubulações de ar-condicionado, incêndio, etc., evita um acréscimo na altura. Em consequência há uma grande diminuição da capacidade resistente nestes elementos estruturais que dependem diretamente da forma, do tamanho e da posição destas aberturas. A presente dissertação descreve alguns métodos construtivos de aberturas em almas de vigas de aço, cálculos de dimensionamentos e normas relacionadas. Alguns estudos numéricos com aplicações do método dos elementos finitos foram realizados investigando: angulação de aberturas hexagonais, vigas com três aberturas nos terços médios, vigas casteladas (tipo Litzka, com quantidades diferentes de aberturas), vigas expandidas em altura e uma viga Litzka Expandida. Para tal, utilizou-se de seis perfis de uso prático e comparando-os entre estas alternativas descritas. A viga Litzka Expandida se destacou em resistência quando comparada com outros métodos de fabricação, como também pelo menor peso linear, praticidade na fabricação e posicionamento das aberturas. / [en] More slender structures are used in order to reduce costs, floors depht and floor to ceiling clear heights. Steel construction and composite construction for buildings often employs long spans for beams and girders, offering service room between beams in one direction only. The use of web openings for passage of service ducts avoids increasing the depth of construction. Beams with web openings have reductions on flexural and shear resistances depending on the geometry, size and position of such openings on the beam. This dissertation presents some construction methods of beam web openings, analysis and design recommendations, related standards and codes. Some numerical studies by the finite elements method were carried out and results are presented for: type of openings, number and spacing of openings, castelled beams (Litzka type and nonuniform distribution of openings) and expanded in depth beams. For this purpose, six commonly used profiles were used for testing the described web openings solutions. Some comparison results are presented. The Litzka type of web expanded beam presented the best performance in terms of strength, easy of fabrication and reduction of material costs.