<p>Human use of the oceans is increasingly in conflict with conservation of endangered species. Methods for managing the spatial and temporal placement of industries such as military, fishing, transportation and offshore energy, have historically been post hoc; i.e. the time and place of human activity is often already determined before assessment of environmental impacts. In this dissertation, I build robust species distribution models in two case study areas, US Atlantic (Best et al. 2012) and British Columbia (Best et al. 2015), predicting presence and abundance respectively, from scientific surveys. These models are then applied to novel decision frameworks for preemptively suggesting optimal placement of human activities in space and time to minimize ecological impacts: siting for offshore wind energy development, and routing ships to minimize risk of striking whales. Both decision frameworks relate the tradeoff between conservation risk and industry profit with synchronized variable and map views as online spatial decision support systems.</p><p>For siting offshore wind energy development (OWED) in the U.S. Atlantic (chapter 4), bird density maps are combined across species with weights of OWED sensitivity to collision and displacement and 10 km2 sites are compared against OWED profitability based on average annual wind speed at 90m hub heights and distance to transmission grid. A spatial decision support system enables toggling between the map and tradeoff plot views by site. A selected site can be inspected for sensitivity to a cetaceans throughout the year, so as to capture months of the year which minimize episodic impacts of pre-operational activities such as seismic airgun surveying and pile driving.</p><p>Routing ships to avoid whale strikes (chapter 5) can be similarly viewed as a tradeoff, but is a different problem spatially. A cumulative cost surface is generated from density surface maps and conservation status of cetaceans, before applying as a resistance surface to calculate least-cost routes between start and end locations, i.e. ports and entrance locations to study areas. Varying a multiplier to the cost surface enables calculation of multiple routes with different costs to conservation of cetaceans versus cost to transportation industry, measured as distance. Similar to the siting chapter, a spatial decisions support system enables toggling between the map and tradeoff plot view of proposed routes. The user can also input arbitrary start and end locations to calculate the tradeoff on the fly.</p><p>Essential to the input of these decision frameworks are distributions of the species. The two preceding chapters comprise species distribution models from two case study areas, U.S. Atlantic (chapter 2) and British Columbia (chapter 3), predicting presence and density, respectively. Although density is preferred to estimate potential biological removal, per Marine Mammal Protection Act requirements in the U.S., all the necessary parameters, especially distance and angle of observation, are less readily available across publicly mined datasets.</p><p>In the case of predicting cetacean presence in the U.S. Atlantic (chapter 2), I extracted datasets from the online OBIS-SEAMAP geo-database, and integrated scientific surveys conducted by ship (n=36) and aircraft (n=16), weighting a Generalized Additive Model by minutes surveyed within space-time grid cells to harmonize effort between the two survey platforms. For each of 16 cetacean species guilds, I predicted the probability of occurrence from static environmental variables (water depth, distance to shore, distance to continental shelf break) and time-varying conditions (monthly sea-surface temperature). To generate maps of presence vs. absence, Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves were used to define the optimal threshold that minimizes false positive and false negative error rates. I integrated model outputs, including tables (species in guilds, input surveys) and plots (fit of environmental variables, ROC curve), into an online spatial decision support system, allowing for easy navigation of models by taxon, region, season, and data provider.</p><p>For predicting cetacean density within the inner waters of British Columbia (chapter 3), I calculated density from systematic, line-transect marine mammal surveys over multiple years and seasons (summer 2004, 2005, 2008, and spring/autumn 2007) conducted by Raincoast Conservation Foundation. Abundance estimates were calculated using two different methods: Conventional Distance Sampling (CDS) and Density Surface Modelling (DSM). CDS generates a single density estimate for each stratum, whereas DSM explicitly models spatial variation and offers potential for greater precision by incorporating environmental predictors. Although DSM yields a more relevant product for the purposes of marine spatial planning, CDS has proven to be useful in cases where there are fewer observations available for seasonal and inter-annual comparison, particularly for the scarcely observed elephant seal. Abundance estimates are provided on a stratum-specific basis. Steller sea lions and harbour seals are further differentiated by ‘hauled out’ and ‘in water’. This analysis updates previous estimates (Williams & Thomas 2007) by including additional years of effort, providing greater spatial precision with the DSM method over CDS, novel reporting for spring and autumn seasons (rather than summer alone), and providing new abundance estimates for Steller sea lion and northern elephant seal. In addition to providing a baseline of marine mammal abundance and distribution, against which future changes can be compared, this information offers the opportunity to assess the risks posed to marine mammals by existing and emerging threats, such as fisheries bycatch, ship strikes, and increased oil spill and ocean noise issues associated with increases of container ship and oil tanker traffic in British Columbia’s continental shelf waters.</p><p>Starting with marine animal observations at specific coordinates and times, I combine these data with environmental data, often satellite derived, to produce seascape predictions generalizable in space and time. These habitat-based models enable prediction of encounter rates and, in the case of density surface models, abundance that can then be applied to management scenarios. Specific human activities, OWED and shipping, are then compared within a tradeoff decision support framework, enabling interchangeable map and tradeoff plot views. These products make complex processes transparent for gaming conservation, industry and stakeholders towards optimal marine spatial management, fundamental to the tenets of marine spatial planning, ecosystem-based management and dynamic ocean management.</p> / Dissertation

Passive acoustic monitoring has been used to investigate many aspects of marine mammal ecology, although methods to estimate absolute abundance and density using acoustic data have only been developed in recent years. The instrument configuration in an acoustic survey determines which abundance estimation methods can be used. Sparsely distributed arrays of instruments are useful because wide geographic areas can be covered. However, instrument spacing in sparse arrays is such that the same vocalisation will not be detected on multiple instruments, excluding the use of some abundance estimation methods. The aim of this thesis was to explore cetacean abundance and density estimation using novel sparse array datasets, applying existing methods where possible, or developing new approaches. The wealth of data collected by sparse arrays was demonstrated by analysing a 10-year dataset collected by the U.S. Navy's Sound Surveillance System in the north-east Atlantic. Spatial and temporal patterns of blue (Balaenoptera musculus) and fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) vocal activity were investigated using generalised additive models. Distance sampling-based methods were applied to fin whale calls recorded by an array of Ocean Bottom Seismometers in the north-east Atlantic. Estimated call density was 993 calls/1000 km².hr⁻¹ (CV: 0.39). Animal density could not be estimated because the call rate was unknown. Further development of the call localisation method is required so the current density estimate may be biased. Furthermore, analysing a single day of data resulted in a high variance estimate. Finally, a new simulation-based method developed to estimate density from single hydrophones was applied to blue whale calls recorded in the northern Indian Ocean. Estimated call density was 3 calls/1000 km².hr⁻¹ (CV: 0.17). Again, density of whales could not be estimated as the vocalisation rate was unknown. Lack of biological knowledge poses the greatest limitation to abundance and density estimation using acoustic data.

Cetacean species face serious challenges worldwide due to the increasing noise pollution brought to their environment by human activities such as seismic exploration. Regulation of these activities is vaguely defined and uncoordinated. Visual observations and passive listening devices, aimed at preventing conflicts between human wealth and cetaceans’ health have some fundamental limitations and may consequently fail their mitigation purposes. Active sonar technology could be the optimal solution to implement mitigation of such human activities. In my thesis, the proper sonar unit was used to test the feasibility to detect cetaceans in situ. Omnidirectional sonars could be the optimal solution to monitor the presence of cetaceans in the proximity of potential danger areas. To use this class of sonar in a quantitative manner, the first step was to develop a calibration method. This thesis links in situ measurements of target strength (TS) with variation trends linked to the behavior, morphology and physiology of cetacean. The butterfly effect of a cetacean’s body was described for a fin whale insonified from different angles. A relationship between whale respiration and TS energy peaks was tested through a simple prediction model which seems very promising for further implementation. The effect of lung compression on cetacean TS due to increasing depth was tested through a basic mathematical model. The model fit the in situ TS measurements. TS measurements at depth of a humpback whale, when post-processed, correspond to TS measurements recorded at the surface. Sonar technology is clearly capable of detecting whale foot prints around an operating vessel. Sonar frequency response shows that frequencies between 18 and 38 kHz should be employed. This work has established a baseline and raised new questions so that active sonar can be developed and employed in the best interest for the whales involved in potentially harmful conflicts with man.

[pt] Neste estudo, avaliou-se a influência de alguns parâmetros ecológicos e biológicos sobre a acumulação dos elementos- traço e mercúrio orgânico (HgOrg)no fígado e rins de espécies de cetáceos de hábitos costeiros (Pontoporia blainvillei, N = 31; Sotalia guianensis, N = 21) e oceânicos (Stenella coeruleoalba, N = 3; Stenella frontalis, N = 4), acidentalmente capturados em duas áreas distintas da costa brasileira (tropical - litoral do norte do estado do Rio de Janeiro e subtropical - litoral do estado do Rio Grande do Sul). Assim, foram gerados novos dados a respeito das concentrações destes elementos em órgãos de cetáceos marinhos ainda pouco estudados, especialmente em uma região com pouca informação como a porção oeste do Oceano Atlântico Sul. Para tal, foram aplicados métodos analíticos baseados na técnica da espectrometria de absorção atômica (AAS), utilizando a espectrometria de absorção atômica com forno de grafite (GF-AAS) e a espectrometria de absorção atômica com vapor frio (CVAAS), as mais frequentemente aplicadas para a determinação de elementos-traço e mercúrio respectivamente, em amostras biológicas. Estas técnicas apresentaram ótima precisão e exatidão comprovadas através da análise de materiais de referência certificados (CRM) do National Research Council - Canadá (DORM-2, DOLT-2 e TORT-2). Foram observadas diferenças regionais (região tropical e subtropical) e inter-específicas (golfinhos de hábitos costeiro e oceânico) sobre a acumulação dos elementos- traço e HgOrg nos órgãos estudados. As espécies de hábito oceânico apresentaram as maiores concentrações destes elementos em seus órgãos. O sexo dos indivíduos não influiu na bioacumulação dos elementos e HgOrg. Os parâmetros população, comprimento total, e maturidade sexual, influenciaram na acumulação dos elementos-traço e HgOrg em ambos os órgãos, de acordo com a espécie e a área de captura. S. guianensis, co- habita o mesmo ambiente que P. blainvillei, e preferencialmente se alimenta de peixes maiores e predadores, neste estudo, apresentou a razão molar de 1:1 entre o Se e o Hg,mostrando assim, que provavelmente o processo de destoxificação de metilmercúrio hepático esteja ocorrendo. A espécie P. blainvillei se alimenta preferencialmente de cefalópodes e peixes pequenos, e apresentou uma razão molar de 4:1 entre o Se e o Hg no fígado. Os metais de transição Cd e Ag, que também interagem com o Se hepático nos mamíferos, apresentaram correlações significativas no fígado dos cetáceos marinhos estudados. A espécie S. guianensis apresentou correlações significativas entre as concentrações molares de Se e Cd (p = 0,01) e Se e Ag (p < 0,001) no fígado. Para a espécie P. blainvillei, os indivíduos provenientes de ambas as regiões (tropical e subtropical) apresentaram correlações significativas entre as concentrações molares de Se e Hg (p < 0,001) no fígado. Somente os indivíduos de P. blainvillei capturados na região tropical apresentaram correlações significativas entre as concentrações molares de Se e Cd (p < 0,001). Não só as diferentes condições ambientais, mas também, o tempo de vida, o estágio de crescimento e, principalmente a preferência alimentar, influenciaram fortemente sobre a acumulação de elementos- traço e HgOrg nos tecidos dos cetáceos assim como, sobre suas inter-relações. / [en] The present work tested whether ecological and biological parameters have an influence on the accumulation of trace elements and organic mercury (HgOrg) by the liver and kidney of coastal (Pontoporia blainvillei, N = 31; Sotalia guianensis, N = 21) and oceanic (Stenella coeruleoalba, N = 3; Stenella frontalis, N = 4) cetaceans species incidentally caught in fishing nets along two Brazilian coastal areas (tropical - northern Rio de Janeiro State and subtropical -Rio Grande do Sul State). This research added new insight to the existing studies with trace element concentrations in internal organs of marine cetaceans from the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. Few studies have documented trace element concentrations in marine mammals in this area. Analytical methodologies based on atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), using the graphite furnace (GF-AAS) and cold vapor (CV-AAS) techniques were applied for this purpose. They are the most popular analytical techniques applied for trace element and mercury determination, respectively, in biological samples. Precision and accuracy of the analytical methods were determined and monitored using certified material from National Research Council - Canada (DORM-2, DOLT-2 and TORT- 2). Interspecies (coastal and oceanic cetacean species) and regional (tropical and subtropical regions) differences were observed in the accumulation of trace elements and organic mercury in organs, liver and kidney. The highest concentrations of these elements were observed in the liver of the oceanic cetacean species. However, no gender differences were found on the bioaccumulation of trace elements and also organic mercury. Biological parameters such as, population, body length and sexual maturity influenced on the trace element and organic mercury accumulation by both organs, according to the cetacean species and caught area. S. guianensis, which co- habits the same coastal marine environment that P. blainvillei species, was the only dolphin species that presented a Se:Hg molar ratio close to 1:1, showing that a probable detoxification process can be occurring in the liver of S. guianensis. This dolphin species feeds mainly on predatory fish, while P. blainvillei feeds mainly on fish and cephalopods. P. blainvillei presented a Se:Hg molar ratio close to 4:1. It`s known that transition metals, such as Hg, Cd and Ag, have an interaction with Se in the liver of marine mammals. The molar concentrations of Cd (p = 0.01) and Ag (p < 0.001) presented significant correlations with the hepatic molar Se in the liver of S. guianensis. P. blainvillei from both sampling areas presented a high significant correlation for molar Se to Hg concentrations (p < 0.001) in liver. Meanwhile, only individuals of P. blainvillei from tropical region showed a significant correlation with hepatic Se and Cd (p < 0.001). Based on the results present here, it is possible to conclude that, not only the different environmental conditions, but also life span, growth stage but mainly the feeding habit influenced the accumulation of trace elements and organic mercury by cetacean tissues. These ecological and biological parameters influenced on the inter-element relationships.

Le concept d'Umwelt de Jakob von Uexküll considère les animaux comme des sujets qui habitent leur propre univers subjectif qui est déterminé par la perception sensorielle de l'animal et ses capacités cognitives. Le dauphin apparait être une espèce intéressante pour étudier l'Umwelt, car les cétacés ont subi un changement radical de mode de vie au cours de l'évolution. Ces mammifères sont passés d'une vie terrestre à une vie aquatique. Bien que les grands dauphins soient intensivement étudiés, des recherches sur leur perception sensorielle sont encore nécessaires. Ici, nous avons étudié certains aspects de l'Umwelt des dauphins en nous interrogeant sur: (1) l'organisation de leur Umwelt acoustique nocturne ; (2) ce que la production de copies vocales par les dauphins peut nous dire sur leur perception de leur environnement ; (3) s'ils sont capables de percevoir des goûts (4) ou des odeurs ; (5) s'ils sont sensibles aux stimuli magnétiques. Nous avons constaté que l'Umwelt nocturne des dauphins a été caractérisé par une activité vocale avec des patterns temporels qui comprenaient également des copies vocales des sons que les dauphins avaient entendus au cours de la journée. Il s'agit d'une nette séparation entre la formation de la mémoire auditive et la production de copies vocales. Les copies pourraient être des répétitions nocturnes vocalement exprimées des événements de la journée. Ainsi, les vocalisations peuvent servir d'indicateurs d'événements ou d'objets qui ont un sens pour les dauphins. En ce qui concerne les capacités perceptives des dauphins, nous avons constaté qu'ils étaient sensibles aux stimuli liés à l'alimentation à la fois sur les plans gustatif et olfactif. Ils peuvent utiliser cette capacité pour localiser et / ou évaluer la nature de leur proie. En outre, les dauphins ont répondu à un stimulus magnétique, ce qui suggère qu'ils sont magnétosensibles, cela pourrait être utile pour la navigation. Jusqu'à présent, la chimio- et la magnétoréception n'ont pas été considérées sérieusement comme potentiellement fonctionnelles chez les dauphins. Les résultats obtenus au cours de cette thèse ont permis de combler certaines des lacunes qui subsistaient dans la connaissance de l'Umwelt du dauphin et contribuent ainsi à une meilleure compréhension de cette espèce. En outre, ils montrent que des aspects importants de la biologie d'espèces pourtant intensivement étudiées peuvent être encore méconnus. Cela nous rappelle l'importance de garder une grande ouverture d'esprit lorsque l'on étudie un sujet. / The Umwelt concept of Jakob von Uexküll considers animals as subjects that inhabit their own subjective universe which is determined by the animal’s sensory perception and cognitive abilities. Dolphins present an interesting species to investigate its Umwelt because cetaceans underwent a drastic change in lifestyle in the course of evolution because these mammals returned from a terrestrial life back into the water. Although bottlenose dolphins are intensively studied there are still many knowledge gaps. Here we studied some aspects of the dolphins’ Umwelt by asking: (1) how their nocturnal acoustic Umwelt is arranged; (2) what the production of vocal copies can tell us about the dolphins’ perception of their environment; (3) whether they are able to perceive tastes (4) or odours; (5) whether they are sensitive to magnetic stimuli. We found that the dolphins’ nocturnal Umwelt was characterized by a temporally patterned vocal activity that also included vocal copies of sounds that the dolphins had heard during the day. This is a striking separation between auditory memory formation and vocal copy production and the copies might be a vocally expressed nocturnal rehearsal of day events. Thus, vocalizations can serve as possible indicators of events or objects that are meaningful to the dolphins. Regarding dolphins’ perceptive abilities, we found that they were sensitive to both gustatory and olfactory food-related stimuli. They might use this ability to locate and/or evaluate prey. Further, dolphins responded to a magnetic stimulus, suggesting that they are magnetosensitive, what could be useful for navigation. So far, chemo- and magnetoreception have not been considered seriously as potentially functional in dolphins. The results obtained during this thesis fill some of the gaps that still exist in the knowledge of the dolphin’s Umwelt and therefore contribute to a better understanding of this species. Moreover, they illustrate that even already intensively studied species may still hold important facets of their biology to reveal and that research should broaden the view and remain unbiased when studying a topic.

Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) plays a key role in a number of biological applications: assessment of temporal trends in distribution, environmental impact assessment and spatial conservation planning. From a statistical perspective, this thesis develops two methods for increasing the accuracy and reliability of maps of density surfaces and provides a solution to the problem of how to collate multiple density maps of the same region, obtained from differing sources. From a biological perspective, these statistical methods are used to analyse two marine mammal datasets to produce accurate maps for use in spatial conservation planning and temporal trend assessment. The first new method, Complex Region Spatial Smoother [CReSS; Scott-Hayward et al., 2013], improves smoothing in areas where the real distance an animal must travel (`as the animal swims') between two points may be greater than the straight line distance between them, a problem that occurs in complex domains with coastline or islands. CReSS uses estimates of the geodesic distance between points, model averaging and local radial smoothing. Simulation is used to compare its performance with other traditional and recently-developed smoothing techniques: Thin Plate Splines (TPS, Harder and Desmarais [1972]), Geodesic Low rank TPS (GLTPS; Wang and Ranalli [2007]) and the Soap lm smoother (SOAP; Wood et al. [2008]). GLTPS cannot be used in areas with islands and SOAP can be very hard to parametrise. CReSS outperforms all of the other methods on a range of simulations, based on their fit to the underlying function as measured by mean squared error, particularly for sparse data sets. Smoothing functions need to be flexible when they are used to model density surfaces that are highly heterogeneous, in order to avoid biases due to under- or over-fitting. This issue was addressed using an adaptation of a Spatially Adaptive Local Smoothing Algorithm (SALSA, Walker et al. [2010]) in combination with the CReSS method (CReSS-SALSA2D). Unlike traditional methods, such as Generalised Additive Modelling, the adaptive knot selection approach used in SALSA2D naturally accommodates local changes in the smoothness of the density surface that is being modelled. At the time of writing, there are no other methods available to deal with this issue in topographically complex regions. Simulation results show that CReSS-SALSA2D performs better than CReSS (based on MSE scores), except at very high noise levels where there is an issue with over-fitting. There is an increasing need for a facility to combine multiple density surface maps of individual species in order to make best use of meta-databases, to maintain existing maps, and to extend their geographical coverage. This thesis develops a framework and methods for combining species distribution maps as new information becomes available. The methods use Bayes Theorem to combine density surfaces, taking account of the levels of precision associated with the different sets of estimates, and kernel smoothing to alleviate artefacts that may be created where pairs of surfaces join. The methods were used as part of an algorithm (the Dynamic Cetacean Abundance Predictor) designed for BAE Systems to aid in risk mitigation for naval exercises. Two case studies show the capabilities of CReSS and CReSS-SALSA2D when applied to real ecological data. In the first case study, CReSS was used in a Generalised Estimating Equation framework to identify a candidate Marine Protected Area for the Southern Resident Killer Whale population to the south of San Juan Island, off the Pacific coast of the United States. In the second case study, changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of harbour porpoise and minke whale in north-western European waters over a period of 17 years (1994-2010) were modelled. CReSS and CReSS-SALSA2D performed well in a large, topographically complex study area. Based on simulation results, maps produced using these methods are more accurate than if a traditional GAM-based method is used. The resulting maps identified particularly high densities of both harbour porpoise and minke whale in an area off the west coast of Scotland in 2010, that might be a candidate for inclusion into the Scottish network of Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas.

Bottlenose dolphins of the Kvarnerić (NE Adriatic Sea) live in an area of increasing human impact, through tourism and small-scale fisheries. This thesis aimed to assess the status of the local population and to inform managers on factors affecting their distribution and abundance, using data from 1995-2003. Habitat modelling indicated a significant negative impact of proximity to the main ‘marine highway’ and to marine petrol stations. Evidence was found that dolphins may recently have reached a tolerance limit to the number of boats using the area and that they remember crowded areas from one year to the next. Dolphin presence was positively related to particular depths and trawling areas. Apparent adult survival rate was estimated to be significantly lower than for any other bottlenose dolphin population and first year calf survival was also low. A decreasing trend in fecundity rate was found. The population showed a considerable rate of non-random temporary emigration from the study area. The estimated size of the population was small and similar to two other European bottlenose dolphin populations (Moray Firth in Scotland and Shannon Estuary in Ireland). A significant decrease in abundance of about 39% from 1995 was estimated. PVA confirmed the importance of female adult survival to population viability and indicated that the current rate of human-induced mortality is unsustainable. Local extinction risk within three generations was estimated to be high (35%). Applying the IUCN Red List Criteria, the Kvarnerić population should be listed as Endangered under Criterion C and E. This study gives an important insight into the ecology of Adriatic bottlenose dolphins and indicates the need for a regionally and locally synergistic approach to conserve this population.

[pt] Neste estudo foram determinadas as concentrações de Se e Hg, no tecido hepático, muscular e renal, de 70 golfinhos de cinco espécies diferentes (Tursiops truncatus, Stenella frontalis, Steno bredanensis, Sotalia guianensis e Pontoporia blainvillei) e uma espécie de ave marinha (Sula leucogaster), encontrados mortos, durante os anos de 2001 e 2013, na Costa Centro-Norte fluminense. A fim de identificar o processo de bioacumulação e biomagnificação, foram determinadas as concentrações de Se e Hg no fígado e no músculo de cinco espécies de peixe (Trichiurus lepturus, Micropogonias furnieri, Mugil liza, Sardinella brasiliensis, Scomber japonicus) e um cefalópode (Loligo plei). Para auxiliar no estudo dos níveis de Se e Hg, também foram avaliados os valores dos isótopos estáveis Delta 13C e Delta 15N no músculo de todas as espécies envolvidas. As concentrações mais elevadas de mercúrio e selênio foram observadas no fígado dos golfinhos, que apresentaram valores entre 11,2 e 684 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 para o Hg e entre 10,2 e 111 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 para Se. No músculo foram observadas concentrações mais baixas de Se e Hg nos golfinhos, apresentando concentrações de Hg que variaram entre 1,8 a 9,8 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1, e de Se que variaram entre 1,9 a 2,3 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1. A concentração de Hg no rim variou de 1,5 a 22 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 e de Se entre 7,6 a 12 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 nos golfinhos. Entre as presas, as concentrações mais elevadas de Hg e Se foram observadas no fígado, o mercúrio variou entre 0,3 e 1,6 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 e o selênio entre 6,6 e 40,4 mg elevado a potência negativa 1. As concentrações de Hg muscular ficaram entre 0,45 e 0,046 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 e de Se muscular entre 2,3 e 1,4 mg kg elevado a potência negativa 1 nas presas. Os golfinhos apresentaram maior enriquecimento de nitrogênio com valores médios entre 14,0 e 17,5 por mil. Para os isótopos estáveis de carbono, os valores médios variaram entre menos 16,8 e menos 15,5 por mil nos cetáceos. A razão isotópica entre as presas varou entre 8,3 e 13,5 por mil para o Delta 15N e entre menos 18,3 a menos 11,9 para o Delta 13C. Foi observado poder de biomagnificação positivo para o mercúrio nas espécies S. guianenis (log [Hg] = menos 0,031 mais 0,195 asterisco Delta 15 N; r igual a 0,719; p menor 0,001) e S. frontalis (log [Hg] igual a menos 0,15 mais 0,21 asterisco Delta 15 N; r igual 0,68; p menor que 0,0001), sendo possível concluir que a biomagnificação do Hg é efetiva na região estudada. / [en] This study determined the concentrations of Se and Hg in the liver, muscle and kidney tissue, of 70 dolphins from five different species (Tursiops truncatus, Stenella frontalis, Steno bredanensis, Sotalia guianensis and Pontoporia blainvillei) and a species of seabird (Sula leucogaster), found dead during 2001 and 2013 on the North-Central Coast of the State of Rio de Janeiro. In order to identify the bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes, the concentrations of Se and Hg in the liver and muscle of five species of fish (Trichiurus lepturus, Micropogonias furnieri, Mugil liza, Sardinella brasiliensis, Scomber japonicus) and a cephalopods (Loligo plei) were determined. To assist in the study of Se and Hg, Delta 13 C and Delta 15 N stable isotopes in the muscle of all investigated were also evaluated species involved. The highest concentrations of mercury and selenium were observed in dolphin liver, which presented values between 11.2 and 684 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 for Hg and between 10.2 and 111.3 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 for Se. In muscle lower concentrations of Se and Hg were observed for these species, showing Hg concentrations ranging from 1.8 to 9.8 mg Kg elevated to negative power 1, while Se ranged from 1.9 to 2.3 mg kg elevated to negative power 1. Hg concentrations in the kidney varied from 1.5 to 22.0 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 and Se between 7.6 to 12.2 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 in dolphins. Among the prey, higher concentrations of Hg and Se were observed in liver, mercury varied from 0.28 to 1.6 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 and selenium between 6.6 and 40.4 mg kg elevated to negative power 1. Hg muscle concentrations were between 0.45 and 0.046 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 and muscle Se between 2.3 and 1.4 mg kg elevated to negative power 1 in the prey. Dolphins show higher nitrogen enrichment with mean values between 14.0 and 17.5 per thousand. For the stable carbon isotopes, the mean values ranged between less 16.8 and less 15.5 per thousand in cetaceans. The isotopic ratio of the prey ranged between 8.3 and 13.5 per thousand for Delta 15N and between less 18.3 and less 11.9 for Delta 13C. Positive biomagnification power was observed for mercury to species S. guianenis (log [Hg] equal less 0.031 more 0.195 asterisk Delta 15N; r equal 0.719; p less than 0.001) and S. frontalis (log [Hg] equal less 0.15 more 0.21 asterisk Delta 15N; r 10 equal 0.68; p less than 0.0001), and indicating that the biomagnification of Hg is effective in the region studied.

Orientador: Carolina Pacheco Bertozzi / Abstract: The Franciscana dolphin (Pontoporia blanvillei) is a small odontocete impacted by anthropic activities (bycatch, habitat degradation). The hormonal measurement in biological matrices (feces, urine, blubber, milk, saliva, blow) has been increasingly used in aquatic mammals for certain reproductive parameters. The present study validated the method of extraction and measurement of testosterone and progesterone in blubber kept in two different temperatures (-20°C and -196°C), besides correlating the hormone concentration with gender, sexual maturity, age, stage of development, body length and occurrence of pregnancy. The carcasses were collected from stranded and bycatch dolphins of the coast of São Paulo. Blubber samples were collected and frozen at -20°C (n=101) and -196°C (liquid nitrogen) (n=28). The extraction was performed with a method described in literature and the hormonal analyses were done by enzyme immunoassay for the two hormones. An analysis was performed on two units of hormone concentration (ng/g and ng/mg). The inter-assay coefficient of variation was 6.89% for progesterone and 1.67% for testosterone, the intra-assay coefficient of variation was 7.82% for progesterone and 3.29% for testosterone. The progesterone assay presented parallelism F1.5= 0.87, p= 0.45 and testosterone presented F1.5= 3.79, p= 0.11. The mean extraction efficiency was 66% for progesterone and 70% for testosterone. The method of extraction and hormonal analysis was feasible for Pontoporia ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Resumo: A toninha (Pontoporia blanvillei) é um pequeno odontoceto impactado pelas atividades antrópicas (capturas acidentais, degradação de habitat). A dosagem hormonal em diferentes matrizes (fezes, urina, tecido adiposo, leite, saliva, borrifo) tem sido cada vez mais utilizada em mamíferos aquáticos para determinar parâmetros reprodutivos. O objetivo deste estudo foi validar o método de extração e mensuração de testosterona e progesterona em camada de gordura subcutânea de carcaças de toninha armazenadas em duas temperaturas (-20°C e -196ºC), além de correlacionar as dosagens com parâmetros de sexo, maturidade gonadal, idade, estágio de desenvolvimento, comprimento total e ocorrência de prenhez. As amostras foram colhidas de carcaças provenientes de encalhe e captura acidental do litoral de São Paulo. Foram colhidos fragmentos de gordura, armazenados em freezer a -20°C (n=101) e em nitrogênio líquido (-196ºC) (n=28). A extração hormonal foi realizada com modificações a partir do método descrito em literatura e a dosagem foi feita por enzimaimunoensaio para os dois hormônios. Os resultados das análises estatísticas foram expressos em duas unidades de concentração de hormônio (ng/g e ng/mg). O coeficiente de variação inter-ensaio foi de 6,89% para progesterona e 1,67% para testosterona, o coeficiente de variação intra-ensaio foi de 7,82% para progesterona e 3,29% para testosterona. Os resultados do paralelismo para o ensaio de progesterona foi F1,5 =0,87 e p=0,45 e para testosterona ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Mestre

In conservation ecology, abundance estimates are an important factor from which management decisions are based. Methods to estimate abundance of cetaceans from visual detections are largely developed, whereas parallel methods based on passive acoustic detections are still in their infancy. To estimate the abundance of cetacean species using acoustic detection data, it is first necessary to correctly identify the species that are detected. The current automatic PAMGUARD Whistle Classifier used to automatically identify whistle detection of cetacean species is modified with the objective to facilitate the use of these detections to estimate cetacean abundance. Given the variability of cetacean sounds within and between species, developing an automated species classifier with a 100% correct classification probability for any species is unfeasible. However, through the examples of two case studies it is shown that large and high quality datasets with which to develop these automatic classifiers increase the probability of creating reliable classifiers with low and precise misclassification probability. Given that misclassification is unavoidable, it is necessary to consider the effect of misclassified detections on the number of observed acoustic calls detected and thus on abundance estimates, and to develop robust methods to cope with these misclassifications. Through both heuristic and Bayesian approaches it is demonstrated that if misclassification probabilities are known or estimated precisely, it is possible to estimate the true number of detected calls accurately and precisely. However, misclassification and uncertainty increase the variance of the estimates. If the true numbers of detections from different species are similar, then a small amount of misclassification between species and a small amount of uncertainty in the probabilities of misclassification does not have a detrimental effect on the overall variance and bias of the estimate. However, if there is a difference in the encounter rate between species calls associated with a large amount of uncertainty in the probabilities of misclassification, then the variance of the estimates becomes larger and the bias increases; this in return increases the variance and the bias of the final abundance estimate. This study despite not bringing perfect results highlights for the first time the importance of dealing with the problem of species misclassification for cetacean if acoustic detections are to be used to estimate abundance of cetaceans.