Au cours d'une histoire évolutive singulière, les systèmes sensoriels des cétacés se sont adaptés à la vie en milieu aquatique. Aujourd’hui, alors que la littérature scientifique regorge de travaux sur leurs capacités acoustiques exceptionnelles, l’utilisation des sens chimiques par ces mammifères marins demeure encore largement méconnue. En effet, malgré quelques rares observations suggérant qu’ils pourraient détecter les composés sécrétés par leurs proies et leurs congénères, les arguments anatomiques et génétiques sont plutôt en faveur d’une régression voire d’une disparition de leurs capacités chémoréceptrices. Les cétacés auraient-ils perdu l’usage de ce canal sensoriel pourtant fondamental pour l’alimentation, la navigation et la reproduction chez les autres grands prédateurs marins ? L’objet principal de ma thèse était donc de déterminer si ces animaux sont capables de percevoir et d’utiliser les indices chimiques présents dans leur environnement en me basant principalement sur une approche comportementale. J’ai ainsi étudié les réactions des cétacés à dents (Odontocètes) et à fanons (Mysticètes) face à différents stimuli solubles ou volatiles, liés directement ou indirectement à leur alimentation. Après avoir mis en évidence, dans des conditions contrôlées, que le grand dauphin discrimine des extraits solubles de ses proies, j’ai développé un protocole permettant de mesurer la réponse des animaux (déplacements et comportements de surface) à des stimuli chimiques, dans leur milieu naturel. Des expériences en Méditerranée occidentale ont révélé que les grands dauphins et les globicéphales (Odontocètes) réagissent au sulfure de diméthyle (DMS), une molécule volatile émise dans les zones de forte productivité primaire. J’ai ensuite mesuré, chez la baleine à bosse (mysticète), la réaction au DMS et à des extraits de proies (krill) dans ses zones de reproduction (Océan Indien) et de nourrissage (Atlantique Nord et Antarctique). Les animaux exposés ont réagi par une augmentation de la fréquence respiratoire et, dans le cas de l’extrait de krill uniquement, par une attraction vers la source du signal (chemotaxis). Nos résultats comportementaux ayant mis en évidence une chémoréception fonctionnelle chez les cétacés, j’ai tenté dans un second temps d’identifier ses bases anatomiques et chimiques. J’ai ainsi initié l’exploration des muqueuses orales et nasales par des techniques d’immunohistochimie, ainsi que l’analyse chimique de leurs sécrétions (urines et fèces) à la recherche de potentielles phéromones. Cette approche innovante et multidisciplinaire a permis de dévoiler l’implication des signaux chimiques dans l’écologie des cétacés. Au-delà de leur aspect fondamental, ces résultats pourraient trouver des applications concrètes pour la gestion et la conservation de ces espèces emblématiques et menacées. / During the course of a unique evolutionary process, the sensory systems of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) have secondarily adapted to life in an aquatic environment. While the extraordinary acoustic capacities of these animals have been widely studied, surprisingly little is known about their chemosensory abilities. The results of some sparse behavioural studies suggest that cetaceans can detect molecules secreted by, for example, a prey or congener. In contrast, anatomical and genetic investigations have concluded that cetacean chemosenses are greatly reduced or even absent. This poses the question; have cetaceans truly lost the use of the sensory channels that play a major role in the feeding, orientation and reproduction behaviours of other marine predators? The main objective of this thesis was, therefore, to establish whether these animals are capable of perceiving biologically-relevant chemical cues and exhibiting a behavioural response. For this project, I studied the reactions of both toothed (Odontoceti) and baleen (Mysticeti) whales to various soluble or volatile food-related stimuli. I first worked with captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and showed they could discriminate soluble extracts of their piscine prey. I then developed a novel protocol to measure the responses (surface behaviour and movements) of cetaceans to chemical cues in their natural habitat. Using this protocol, experiments performed in the western Mediterranean Sea revealed that both bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales (Globicephala melas) react to dimethyl sulfate (DMS), a volatile molecule found in areas of high primary productivity. Using the same protocol, I subsequently measured the reactions of a mysticete species, the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) to DMS and to krill extract (their natural prey) in three different locations: in their reproduction zone in the Indian Ocean, and in their feeding grounds in the North Atlantic and Antarctic Ocean. I found that the humpback whales reacted with an increased respiratory rate to both stimuli and that the krill extract also attracted them (chemotaxis). As the results of the behavioural studies suggested the presence of functional chemical senses, I initiated two further studies; (1) a neuroanatomical and immunohistochemical exploration of tissues in the oral and nasal pathways, in order to identify potential chemosensory receptor cells in four species of odontocete, and (2) a chemical analysis of odontocete secretions (urine or feces) in search for potential semiochemicals. Overall, this innovative and multidisciplinary research project revealed that chemical signals are potentially very important in the behavioral ecology of cetaceans. Moreover, these results contribute not only to our fundamental knowledge of the sensory biology of these animals, but they could also have important practical implementations in the conservation of these iconic and threatened species.

Os compostos organoclorados causam grande impacto na natureza devido a três características básicas: persistência ambiental, bioacumulação e alta toxicidade. Os mamíferos marinhos estão entre os organismos mais vulneráveis à toxicidade crônica desses contaminantes porque, além de concentrá-los em grande quantidade, a fêmea transfere parte de sua carga ao filhote durante a gestação e a lactação. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivos otimizar uma metodologia para determinação de organoclorados (pesticidas e PCBs) em matrizes gordurosas e verificar a ocorrência dos mesmos na gordura subcutânea de mamíferos marinhos amostrados na costa de São Paulo (Brasil) e na Ilha Rei George (Antártica). No protocolo metodológico otimizado, a extração foi realizada em extrator Soxhlet (8 h) com uma mistura de n-hexano e diclorometano. A etapa de purificação foi feita através de tratamento ácido e o extrato final analisado em cromatógrafo a gás equipado com detector de captura de elétrons (GC-ECD). A performance do método foi avaliada com material de referência certificado, enquadrando-se dentro de padrões internacionais de controle de qualidade. O limite de detecção do método foi em média 2 ng g-1. As análises apontaram DDTs e PCBs como os grupos que mais causam impacto nos cetáceos da costa de São Paulo. Isso refletiu o histórico de ambos no Brasil, tanto em indústria como em agricultura e saúde pública. Em contrapartida, HCHs e HCB não apresentaram concentrações elevadas, fato que pode ser atribuído à volatilidade dos mesmos em regiões de clima tropical. Da mesma maneira, a-clordano, g-clordano e mirex não foram detectados em níveis significativos. A foca de Weddell (Leptonychotes weddelli), habitante do continente antártico, evidenciou as menores cargas de contaminante entre os animais estudados. As toninhas (Pontoporia blainvillei) e o golfinho-nariz-de-garrafa (Tursiops truncatus) também apresentaram baixos níveis de organoclorados. Os botos-cinza (Sotalia fluviatilis) revelaram concentrações de DDT iguais ou superiores a cetáceos da Índia, país onde esse pesticida ainda não está proibido. Já o golfinho-de-dentes-rugosos (Steno bredanensis) mostrou a maior contaminação entre os animais analisados, comparável a espécies estudadas em águas costeiras de países desenvolvidos (onde os organoclorados foram muito utilizados). / Organochlorine compounds cause strong impact on the nature, as a consequence of three basic characteristics: environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and high toxicity. The marine mammals are one of the most vulnerable organisms to the chronic toxicity of these contaminants. Besides the high concentration in the body, the female transfers part of her load to the offspring during gestation and lactation. The aim of this study was (1) the optimization of a methodology for determining chlorinated hydrocarbons (pesticides and PCBs) in fatty biological matrices and (2) the analysis of organochlorines in marine mammals blubber sampled along São Paulo coast (Brazil) and King George Island (Antarctica). According to the optimized methodology, the extraction was carried out in Soxhlet apparatus (8 h) with a mixture of n-hexane and dichloromethane. The clean-up was carried out with acid treatment and the resulting extract injected into gas chromatography coupled to electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The method performance was evaluated with certified reference material and fitted for international standards of control quality. The mean method detection limit was 2 ng g-1. DDTs and PCBs were the most concentrated organochlorines in the cetaceans from São Paulo coast. These findings reflected their past usage in Brazil by industry, agriculture, and public health. On the other hand, both HCHs and HCB were not found in high concentration likely due to their volatility in tropical climate areas. Mirex, a-chlordane and g-chlordane were not detected in elevated levels. The Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli), from Antarctic continent, presented the smallest load among the studied animals. As the same way, the franciscanas (Pontoporia blainvillei) and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) presented low organochlorine levels. The marine tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis) showed equal or higher DDT concentration than Indian cetaceans where that pesticide is still in use. The rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) revealed the greatest contamination among the analyzed animals, comparable to species studied in the coastal waters of developed countries (where organochlorines were extensively used).

Os linfócitos, principais células do sistema imune, podem ser encontrados em órgãos e tecidos de dois grandes sistemas do corpo: o sistema linfático, composto por uma extensa rede de vasos linfáticos e linfonodos; e o sistema linfoide, mais abrangente e que, além de englobar o sistema linfático, abrange todas as células, tecidos e órgãos do corpo que contêm agregados linfocitários, tais como o timo, baço e linfonodos. Embora esteja amplamente descrito para animais domésticos e alguns animais silvestres, estudos sobre o sistema imune em cetáceos são escassos. A influência negativa de contaminantes no sistema imune em mamíferos aquáticos está em constante discussão. Assim, um conhecimento mais profundo da anatomia deste sistema é essencial para a interpretação clínica e de achados de necropsia, para uma melhor compreensão dos achados patológicos. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar morfológica e ultraestruturalmente os órgãos do sistema linfoides de odontocetos de ocorrência no litoral brasileiro. As amostras utilizadas foram procedentes de animais encalhados nas regiões norte e nordeste do Brasil. Os órgãos analisados foram baço, timo e linfonodo, bem como os tecidos linfoides associados à mucosa. Primeiramente as amostras foram localizadas topograficamente e avaliadas macroscopicamente. Posteriormente, as amostras foram fixadas e analisadas por microscopias de luz, eletrônica de varredura e transmissão, imunohistoquímica e histomorfometria. Através das análises realizadas foi possível observar que os órgãos e tecidos linfoides em cetáceos são semelhantes ao observado em mamíferos domésticos, com algumas particularidades. Não existem diferenças morfológicas com relação ao timo entre as espécies estudadas, com exceção da não existência de tecido adiposo substituindo o órgão em animais mais jovens, e a presença de Corpúsculos de Hassal mais evidentes em tamanho neste grupo. Novos grupos de linfonodos foram descritos de acordo com a sua localização, entretanto todos possuiram arquitetura semelhante ao descrito na literatura para mamíferos terrestres. Os linfonodos estavam dispostos de forma solitária ou em grupos e apresentavam formato variado, recobertos por uma cápsula, e o parênquima do órgão dividiu-se em região cortical e medular. Os centros germinativos apresentaram-se mais evidentes e desenvolvidos em animais filhotes e jovens. Os baços e baços acessórios eram morfologicamente semelhantes, caracterizados por numerosos nódulos linfáticos delimitados pela bainha linfoide periarterial e uma rede celular difusa que circundava os nódulos linfáticos, sem diferenciação entre as camadas cortical e medular. Centros germinativos se tornaram mais discretos e reduzidos em número com o aumento da idade. Os baços acessórios estavam firmemente aderidos ao baço e/ou à grande curvatura da primeira cavidade do estômago, sendo mais prevalentes em animais com maior escore corporal e de mergulhos mais profundos, sugerindo uma função de reservatório sanguíneo complementar. Os tecidos linfoides associados à mucosa em cetáceos foram semelhantes aos observados em mamíferos terrestres, com adaptações inerentes ao meio aquático, como a presença de tonsilas orofaríngea e anal, assegurando uma resposta imunológica mais eficiente diante de desafios antigênicos constantes presentes em seu habitat. Sugere-se que este segmento do sistema linfoide é essencial para a proteção do animal diante dos contaminantes presentes em seu habitat. Com base nos achados do presente estudo, será possível uma melhor compreensão do funcionamento e estrutura do sistema imunológico das espécies estudadas, colaborando na elucidação das causas de encalhe destes animais, que poderão funcionar como potenciais indicadores ambientais / Lymphocytes, key cells of the immune system, can be found in organs and tissues of two major systems of the body: the lymphatic system, composed of an extensive network of lymph vessels and lymph nodes; and the lymphoid system, more comprehensive that, in addition to comprise the lymphatic system, includes all cells, tissues and organs containing lymphoid aggregates, such as the thymus and spleen. Although these systems are widely described in domestic animals and some wildlife species, studies about marine mammals are scarce. The negative influence of contaminants in the immune system of aquatic mammals is in constant discussion. The knowledge on the anatomy of these systems is essential for clinical interpretation and necropsy, providing a better understanding of the pathological findings. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize the morphology and ultrastructure of lymphoid system of odontocetes occurring in the Brazilian coast. Samples from animals stranded in the northern and northeastern regions of Brazil were collected and organs spleen, thymus and lymph node and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue were analyzed. First, all samples were evaluated macroscopically and topographically located. Subsequently, they were fixed and analyzed by light microscopy, scanning electron and transmission, immunohistochemistry and histomorphometry. Through these analyzes it was observed that the organs and lymphoid tissues in cetaceans are similar to that observed in domestic mammals, with some peculiarities inherent to their habitat. There were no morphological differences from the thymus in the species studied, except for the absence of adipose tissue replacing the organ in younger animals, and the presence of Hassall corpuscles more prominent in this group. New groups of lymph nodes were described, possessing architecture similar to that described in the literature for terrestrial mammals. Lymph nodes were arranged solitarily or in groups and had varied format, covered by a capsule and the parenchyma of the organ was divided into cortical and medullary region. Their germinal centers had become more evident and developed in puppies and young animals. Spleens and accessory spleens were morphologically similar, characterized by numerous lymph nodules delimited by periarterial lymphoid sheath and a diffuse cellular network in its surrounding area, without differentiation between cortical and medullary layers. Germinal centers became more discrete and reduced in number with increasing age. Accessory spleens were firmly adhered to the spleen and / or the greater curvature of the first stomach and were more prevalent in animals with higher body score and dives deeper, suggesting a role of complement blood reservoir. The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues in cetaceans were similar to those observed in terrestrial mammals, with inherent aquatic adaptations, such as the presence of oropharyngeal and anal tonsils, ensuring a more efficient immune response in the face of constant antigenic challenges present in their habitat. It is suggested that this segment of the lymphoid system is essential for the protection of the animal before the contaminants in their habitat. Based on these findings, this study will enable a better understanding of the structure and functioning of the immune system of the species studied, collaborating in the elucidation of causes of stranding of these animals, whicih may act as potential environmental indicators

Submitted by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2018-06-19T17:26:20Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Tese de doutorado_Marcelo Vidal_versao final.pdf: 4763423 bytes, checksum: b42e8e90b0b6b02aacc1023943d1b541 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2018-06-19T17:26:32Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Tese de doutorado_Marcelo Vidal_versao final.pdf: 4763423 bytes, checksum: b42e8e90b0b6b02aacc1023943d1b541 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-19T17:26:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Tese de doutorado_Marcelo Vidal_versao final.pdf: 4763423 bytes, checksum: b42e8e90b0b6b02aacc1023943d1b541 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-09 / In Anavilhanas National Park, located in the Lower Rio Negro, state of Amazonas-Brazil, interactive tourism with Amazon River dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) is common. This species of dolphin is endemic to South America continental waters. This study aims to characterize interactive tourism with Amazon River dolphin in Anavilhanas National Park and to assess the potential problems related to the tourism model currently being used, the lack of regulations for cetacean-based tourism in the Amazon, and the scarcity of information about its potential impacts. This study also assesses tourism‟s positive and negative aspects and proposed management measures that contribute to the standardization a tourism model for the Amazon. This study uses diagnostic tools, planning and participatory management of local tourism, interviews with visitors and residents of Novo Airão, photo-identification and monitoring of the frequency of dolphins in tourism enterprise where interactions with cetaceans occur, participatory mapping with tourism guides, and a population inventory of cetaceans in Anavilhanas National Park. Standards and guidelines were developed and put into practice regarding the minimum structure and appropriate locations of interactive tourism activities, as well as guideline for how visitor interactions with animals should occur. These guidelines significantly reduced the risk of accidents and increased the benefits that dolphin-based tourism generates. The study shows that most visitors believe that interactive tourism with the dolphins helps to preserve the species by promoting an increase in knowledge about dolphins and helping to raise awareness among people about the need to protect these animals. In addition, most residents consider dolphin interaction to be one of the primary tourist attractions in Novo Airão, attracting visitors, contributing to local income generation and assisting in the conservation of these animals, although some residents believe that the benefits of tourism are concentrated only within families that operate tourism enterprise. It was possible to identify 13 individuals of Amazon River dolphin involved in the interactive tourism activities. Monitoring of these animals revealed that the frequency with which they took part in the tourism enterprise was only slightly influenced by river level, and that food supply affected the behavior of individuals differently, causing substantial changes in the natural hunting behavior of some animals. The study also shows that cetaceans that are unaccustomed to tourism interactions use a wide variety of environments in Anavilhanas National Park, and have higher densities in certain lakes and river channels. Such areas could be used for observation-based tourism from boats, as this activity respects a series of rules aiming at diminishing possible negative impacts on the animals. This study provides important information for the owners of the tourism enterprise and for the managers of Anavilhanas National Park, and indicates the need for elaboration of future projects and public policies aimed at the managing public use in other protected areas. / No Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, situado no Baixo Rio Negro, estado do Amazonas-Brasil, desenvolve-se o turismo interativo com botos (Inia geoffrensis), um golfinho de rio, endêmico de águas continentais da América do Sul. Levando em conta os potenciais problemas relacionados ao modelo de turismo implementado, a ausência de normatizações para o turismo com cetáceos na Amazônia até o momento, e a escassez de informações sobre os impactos desta atividade, este estudo caracterizou o turismo com botos no Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, analisou seus aspectos positivos e negativos e propôs medidas de ordenamento que contribuíram para a normatização do modelo de turismo implementado. O estudo utilizou ferramentas de diagnóstico, de planejamento e de gestão participativa junto aos atores locais, entrevistas junto aos visitantes e aos moradores de Novo Airão, fotoidentificação e monitoramento da frequência dos botos no empreendimento onde as interações com os cetáceos acontecem, mapeamento participativo junto a condutores de turismo e inventário populacional de cetáceos no Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas. Foram elaboradas e colocadas em prática normas e orientações quanto à estrutura mínima e à localização do empreendimento onde as interações com os botos acontecem, bem como ao modo como as interações dos visitantes com os animais devem ser desenvolvidas. Estas diretrizes reduziram significativamente os riscos de acidentes e aumentaram os benefícios que o turismo com os botos oferece. O estudo demonstrou que a maioria dos visitantes acredita que o turismo de interação com os botos auxilia na conservação da espécie por promover o aumento do conhecimento sobre os botos e auxiliar na sensibilização das pessoas para a proteção destes animais. Por outro lado, a maioria dos moradores considera que as interações com os botos são a principal atração turística de Novo Airão, que atraem visitantes, contribuem para a geração de renda local e auxiliam na conservação destes animais, ainda que alguns moradores acreditem que a atividade concentra seus benefícios junto à família proprietária do empreendimento. Foi possível identificar 13 botos habituados às interações turísticas, sendo que a frequência desses animais no empreendimento foi pouco influenciada pelo nível do rio e a oferta de alimentos impactou diferentemente os indivíduos, ocasionando maior ou menor alteração em seu comportamento natural de caça. O estudo demonstrou ainda que cetáceos não habituados às interações turísticas utilizam uma grande variedade de ambientes do Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, mas apresentam maiores densidades em determinados lagos e canais do rio, ambientes que podem ser utilizados para o turismo embarcado para observação dos cetáceos, desde que a atividade respeite uma série de regras visando diminuir possíveis impactos negativos aos animais. O estudo oferece importantes informações para os proprietários do Flutuante dos Botos e para os gestores do Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, bem como podem subsidiar a elaboração de futuros projetos e de políticas públicas voltadas para a gestão do uso público em outras áreas protegidas.

Os compostos organoclorados causam grande impacto na natureza devido a três características básicas: persistência ambiental, bioacumulação e alta toxicidade. Os mamíferos marinhos estão entre os organismos mais vulneráveis à toxicidade crônica desses contaminantes porque, além de concentrá-los em grande quantidade, a fêmea transfere parte de sua carga ao filhote durante a gestação e a lactação. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivos otimizar uma metodologia para determinação de organoclorados (pesticidas e PCBs) em matrizes gordurosas e verificar a ocorrência dos mesmos na gordura subcutânea de mamíferos marinhos amostrados na costa de São Paulo (Brasil) e na Ilha Rei George (Antártica). No protocolo metodológico otimizado, a extração foi realizada em extrator Soxhlet (8 h) com uma mistura de n-hexano e diclorometano. A etapa de purificação foi feita através de tratamento ácido e o extrato final analisado em cromatógrafo a gás equipado com detector de captura de elétrons (GC-ECD). A performance do método foi avaliada com material de referência certificado, enquadrando-se dentro de padrões internacionais de controle de qualidade. O limite de detecção do método foi em média 2 ng g-1. As análises apontaram DDTs e PCBs como os grupos que mais causam impacto nos cetáceos da costa de São Paulo. Isso refletiu o histórico de ambos no Brasil, tanto em indústria como em agricultura e saúde pública. Em contrapartida, HCHs e HCB não apresentaram concentrações elevadas, fato que pode ser atribuído à volatilidade dos mesmos em regiões de clima tropical. Da mesma maneira, a-clordano, g-clordano e mirex não foram detectados em níveis significativos. A foca de Weddell (Leptonychotes weddelli), habitante do continente antártico, evidenciou as menores cargas de contaminante entre os animais estudados. As toninhas (Pontoporia blainvillei) e o golfinho-nariz-de-garrafa (Tursiops truncatus) também apresentaram baixos níveis de organoclorados. Os botos-cinza (Sotalia fluviatilis) revelaram concentrações de DDT iguais ou superiores a cetáceos da Índia, país onde esse pesticida ainda não está proibido. Já o golfinho-de-dentes-rugosos (Steno bredanensis) mostrou a maior contaminação entre os animais analisados, comparável a espécies estudadas em águas costeiras de países desenvolvidos (onde os organoclorados foram muito utilizados). / Organochlorine compounds cause strong impact on the nature, as a consequence of three basic characteristics: environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and high toxicity. The marine mammals are one of the most vulnerable organisms to the chronic toxicity of these contaminants. Besides the high concentration in the body, the female transfers part of her load to the offspring during gestation and lactation. The aim of this study was (1) the optimization of a methodology for determining chlorinated hydrocarbons (pesticides and PCBs) in fatty biological matrices and (2) the analysis of organochlorines in marine mammals blubber sampled along São Paulo coast (Brazil) and King George Island (Antarctica). According to the optimized methodology, the extraction was carried out in Soxhlet apparatus (8 h) with a mixture of n-hexane and dichloromethane. The clean-up was carried out with acid treatment and the resulting extract injected into gas chromatography coupled to electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The method performance was evaluated with certified reference material and fitted for international standards of control quality. The mean method detection limit was 2 ng g-1. DDTs and PCBs were the most concentrated organochlorines in the cetaceans from São Paulo coast. These findings reflected their past usage in Brazil by industry, agriculture, and public health. On the other hand, both HCHs and HCB were not found in high concentration likely due to their volatility in tropical climate areas. Mirex, a-chlordane and g-chlordane were not detected in elevated levels. The Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli), from Antarctic continent, presented the smallest load among the studied animals. As the same way, the franciscanas (Pontoporia blainvillei) and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) presented low organochlorine levels. The marine tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis) showed equal or higher DDT concentration than Indian cetaceans where that pesticide is still in use. The rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) revealed the greatest contamination among the analyzed animals, comparable to species studied in the coastal waters of developed countries (where organochlorines were extensively used).

Os linfócitos, principais células do sistema imune, podem ser encontrados em órgãos e tecidos de dois grandes sistemas do corpo: o sistema linfático, composto por uma extensa rede de vasos linfáticos e linfonodos; e o sistema linfoide, mais abrangente e que, além de englobar o sistema linfático, abrange todas as células, tecidos e órgãos do corpo que contêm agregados linfocitários, tais como o timo, baço e linfonodos. Embora esteja amplamente descrito para animais domésticos e alguns animais silvestres, estudos sobre o sistema imune em cetáceos são escassos. A influência negativa de contaminantes no sistema imune em mamíferos aquáticos está em constante discussão. Assim, um conhecimento mais profundo da anatomia deste sistema é essencial para a interpretação clínica e de achados de necropsia, para uma melhor compreensão dos achados patológicos. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar morfológica e ultraestruturalmente os órgãos do sistema linfoides de odontocetos de ocorrência no litoral brasileiro. As amostras utilizadas foram procedentes de animais encalhados nas regiões norte e nordeste do Brasil. Os órgãos analisados foram baço, timo e linfonodo, bem como os tecidos linfoides associados à mucosa. Primeiramente as amostras foram localizadas topograficamente e avaliadas macroscopicamente. Posteriormente, as amostras foram fixadas e analisadas por microscopias de luz, eletrônica de varredura e transmissão, imunohistoquímica e histomorfometria. Através das análises realizadas foi possível observar que os órgãos e tecidos linfoides em cetáceos são semelhantes ao observado em mamíferos domésticos, com algumas particularidades. Não existem diferenças morfológicas com relação ao timo entre as espécies estudadas, com exceção da não existência de tecido adiposo substituindo o órgão em animais mais jovens, e a presença de Corpúsculos de Hassal mais evidentes em tamanho neste grupo. Novos grupos de linfonodos foram descritos de acordo com a sua localização, entretanto todos possuiram arquitetura semelhante ao descrito na literatura para mamíferos terrestres. Os linfonodos estavam dispostos de forma solitária ou em grupos e apresentavam formato variado, recobertos por uma cápsula, e o parênquima do órgão dividiu-se em região cortical e medular. Os centros germinativos apresentaram-se mais evidentes e desenvolvidos em animais filhotes e jovens. Os baços e baços acessórios eram morfologicamente semelhantes, caracterizados por numerosos nódulos linfáticos delimitados pela bainha linfoide periarterial e uma rede celular difusa que circundava os nódulos linfáticos, sem diferenciação entre as camadas cortical e medular. Centros germinativos se tornaram mais discretos e reduzidos em número com o aumento da idade. Os baços acessórios estavam firmemente aderidos ao baço e/ou à grande curvatura da primeira cavidade do estômago, sendo mais prevalentes em animais com maior escore corporal e de mergulhos mais profundos, sugerindo uma função de reservatório sanguíneo complementar. Os tecidos linfoides associados à mucosa em cetáceos foram semelhantes aos observados em mamíferos terrestres, com adaptações inerentes ao meio aquático, como a presença de tonsilas orofaríngea e anal, assegurando uma resposta imunológica mais eficiente diante de desafios antigênicos constantes presentes em seu habitat. Sugere-se que este segmento do sistema linfoide é essencial para a proteção do animal diante dos contaminantes presentes em seu habitat. Com base nos achados do presente estudo, será possível uma melhor compreensão do funcionamento e estrutura do sistema imunológico das espécies estudadas, colaborando na elucidação das causas de encalhe destes animais, que poderão funcionar como potenciais indicadores ambientais / Lymphocytes, key cells of the immune system, can be found in organs and tissues of two major systems of the body: the lymphatic system, composed of an extensive network of lymph vessels and lymph nodes; and the lymphoid system, more comprehensive that, in addition to comprise the lymphatic system, includes all cells, tissues and organs containing lymphoid aggregates, such as the thymus and spleen. Although these systems are widely described in domestic animals and some wildlife species, studies about marine mammals are scarce. The negative influence of contaminants in the immune system of aquatic mammals is in constant discussion. The knowledge on the anatomy of these systems is essential for clinical interpretation and necropsy, providing a better understanding of the pathological findings. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize the morphology and ultrastructure of lymphoid system of odontocetes occurring in the Brazilian coast. Samples from animals stranded in the northern and northeastern regions of Brazil were collected and organs spleen, thymus and lymph node and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue were analyzed. First, all samples were evaluated macroscopically and topographically located. Subsequently, they were fixed and analyzed by light microscopy, scanning electron and transmission, immunohistochemistry and histomorphometry. Through these analyzes it was observed that the organs and lymphoid tissues in cetaceans are similar to that observed in domestic mammals, with some peculiarities inherent to their habitat. There were no morphological differences from the thymus in the species studied, except for the absence of adipose tissue replacing the organ in younger animals, and the presence of Hassall corpuscles more prominent in this group. New groups of lymph nodes were described, possessing architecture similar to that described in the literature for terrestrial mammals. Lymph nodes were arranged solitarily or in groups and had varied format, covered by a capsule and the parenchyma of the organ was divided into cortical and medullary region. Their germinal centers had become more evident and developed in puppies and young animals. Spleens and accessory spleens were morphologically similar, characterized by numerous lymph nodules delimited by periarterial lymphoid sheath and a diffuse cellular network in its surrounding area, without differentiation between cortical and medullary layers. Germinal centers became more discrete and reduced in number with increasing age. Accessory spleens were firmly adhered to the spleen and / or the greater curvature of the first stomach and were more prevalent in animals with higher body score and dives deeper, suggesting a role of complement blood reservoir. The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues in cetaceans were similar to those observed in terrestrial mammals, with inherent aquatic adaptations, such as the presence of oropharyngeal and anal tonsils, ensuring a more efficient immune response in the face of constant antigenic challenges present in their habitat. It is suggested that this segment of the lymphoid system is essential for the protection of the animal before the contaminants in their habitat. Based on these findings, this study will enable a better understanding of the structure and functioning of the immune system of the species studied, collaborating in the elucidation of causes of stranding of these animals, whicih may act as potential environmental indicators

Au cours de 325 relevés, 518 observations visuelles et 202 acoustiques ont permis de recenser 4 familles, 14 genres et 17 espèces, représentant un effectif total cumulé de près de 6000 cétacés contactés dans les limites de 15 mille nautiques des côtes en Guadeloupe. Les dauphins (Delphinidëe), constituent 33% des 36 espèces actuellement connues dans le monde. Six espèces plus rares ont été décrites. Parmi les cétacés à fanons, la baleine à bosse (Megaptera novaeangliae) migre dans les eaux côtières de décembre à fin mai et reste l'espèce la plus rencontrée. Grâce à un suivi individuel par télémétrie, il a pu être prouvé qu'au moins un individu de cette espèce pouvait séjourner dans l'archipel plus de huit jours. En 2010, une baleine à bosse de la baie du Moule à été suivie sur plus de 6300 kilomètres jusqu'au sud de l'Islande, vers les Iles Féroé. Une première estimation de stock sur la période de 2008 à 2011 propose que 442 baleines à bosse %CV 19,29 IC95% [302-645] évolueraient dans l'archipel côtier. Les carnïvores sont les plus abondants, avec parmi ceux-ci, le dauphin tacheté pantroplcal (Stenella attenuata) dont l'estimation indique que 270 à 300 individus évolueraient sur 1361 km2 avec une densité relative élevée (0,052 tndtvtdus/km>, %CV 90,16), principalement en-côte-sous-le-vent. L'analyse de la répartition spatiale et des facteurs du milieu indique une sectorisation géographique marquée des populations en zone côtière, avec des distributions influencées spécifiquement par la bathymétrie, la latitude, les distances à la côte et à l'isobathe 200, pour les informations principales et selon les espèces. / In 325 surveys, 518 visuai observations and acoustic 202 have identified four families, 14 genera and 17 species, representing a cumulative total ofnearly 6000 cetaceans assessed within 15 miles of coastal water ofGuadeloupe. Dolphins (Delphinidae), constitute 33% ofthe 36 species currently known in the world. Six rare species have been described. Among the baleen whales, the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrate into coastal waters from December to late May and is the species most encountered. With individual monitoring by telemetry, it has been proved that at least one individual ofthis species could stay in the archipelago over eight days. In 2010, a humpback whale in the Bay ofmold were followed for more than 6300 km to the south ofIceland to the Faroe Islands. A first estimate ofstock over the period 2008 to 20 Il suggests that 442 humpback whales CV% 19.2995% [302-645] would evolve in the coastal archipelago. <..';:-.'") Carnivores are the most abundant, with among them, the spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) whose estimate indicates that 270 to 300 individuals are present over 1361 km 2 with a high specifie density (0.052 individuals / km 2,% CV 90, 16), mainly in the Leeward coast. The analysis ofthe spatial distribution and environmental factors indicates a marked geographical sectorisation ofpopulations in coastal areas, with distributions specifically influenced by bathymetry, latitude, distance to the coast and the isobath 200, depending on the species

It has been demonstrated that certain environmental fluctuations correlate with cetacean strandings in many parts of the world. I examined the correlations between three environmental variables (upwelling coefficient, temperature, and chlorophyll a concentration) and Kogia strandings in Florida from 1998 – 2007. In addition I examined the correlations between El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events and Kogia strandings in Florida and the southeastern United States (SEUS) from 1977-2007. Florida was divided into four regions and strandings were segregated by region with 76% of the strandings occurring on the east coast of Florida. AVHRR Pathfinder satellite temperature data, and MODIS Aqua and SeaWiFS satellite chlorophyll a data were downloaded from NASA websites; NOAA Fisheries Southwest Fisheries Science Center upwelling data were downloaded from the ERD Live Access Server, and ENSO data were also downloaded from a NOAA website. Upwelling was examined on a per stranding basis. For each stranding, a square region (16 km x 16 km) of ocean adjacent to the stranding was examined for upwelling index values for the two weeks prior to the stranding (in increments of six hours). Each region was divided into 16 sub-regions (4 km x 4 km). For each increment of time the data were averaged over all 16 sub-regions. A significant change in upwelling index was defined as a change of absolute value greater than or equal to 200 m3/s/100 m of coastline. Of the 174 strandings, 91 (52%) were correlated to at least one significant upwelling event within 14 days prior to stranding. I examined upwelling, temperature, and chlorophyll a concentration on a seasonal basis. The Florida coastline was divided into 16 regions. Each region was examined, for all three variables, out to approximately 32 km from shore. For each region the data were averaged for each month over the entire ten year study and compared to the number of strandings in each region each month. Data covering the regions of Florida were merged into four large regions (the east coast, the Keys, the west coast, and the Panhandle). I found an inverse correlation between chlorophyll concentration and strandings in Florida. In addition I found an inverse correlation between upwelling and strandings on the west coast of Florida. I examined the ENSO record from 1977 to 2007. I found a direct correlation between ENSO events and strandings in Florida (R2 = 0.1626) and the SEUS (R2 = 0.2236).

Orientador: Alpina Begossi / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T12:27:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza_ShirleyPachecode_D.pdf: 6019504 bytes, checksum: 1683e02bf091f17c595677e61a8c27ee (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Este estudo registra e analisa o conhecimento ecológico dos pescadores artesanais da costa brasileira. O conhecimento dos pescadores é empírico, prático e contém registros em longo prazo sobre espécies e eventos ambientais, incluindo informações biológicas, ecológicas e culturais. Tendo a Ecologia Humana e a Etnobiologia como bases conceituais e metodológicas caracterizamos o conhecimento dos pescadores sobre a classificação, a nomenclatura e a ecologia dos cetáceos. Entrevistamos 171 pescadores artesanais de comunidades localizadas em Soure (Ilha do Marajó) na região norte, em Ponta Negra (Natal) na região nordeste, em São Sebastião (São Paulo) na região sudeste e em Pântano do Sul (Florianópolis) na região sul do Brasil. Os cetáceos fazem parte da megafauna impactada pela captura acidental na pesca. Cerca de metade das espécies existentes no Brasil está classificada pela Lista Vermelha da IUCN como espécies com dados insuficientes, devido à falta de informação sobre elas. Conforme os resultados desta pesquisa, os pescadores reconheceram 17 espécies de cetáceos e as agruparam em quatro etnogêneros e 37 etnoespécies. O conhecimento dos pescadores sobre as áreas de ocorrência, habitats preferenciais, sazonalidade, tamanhos de grupo e reprodução dos cetáceos forneceu informações para 16 espécies. O boto-cinza (Sotalia guianensis) e o golfinho-nariz-de-garrafa (Tursiops truncatus) foram as espécies mais citadas nas quatro áreas. Os tópicos mais conhecidos foram áreas de ocorrência e tamanhos de grupo, e o menos conhecido foi reprodução. Em relação às interações entre cetáceos e atividades pesqueiras, as informações obtidas indicaram os seguintes tipos de interações: competição (com os peixes e os pescadores), cooperação (com os pescadores) e predação (sobre as espécies-alvo da pesca ou como presa para outros predadores de topo). As espécies mais comuns em cada área (S. guianensis, T. truncatus, Inia geoffrensis, Stenella clymene, Pontoporia blainvillei e Eubalaena australis) são as mais conhecidas e as mais mencionadas como principais competidores ou cooperadores. A captura acidental de cetáceos foi a interação mais citada. Os pescadores conhecem detalhes sobre os hábitos alimentares de alguns cetáceos, descrevendo 28 tipos diferentes de comportamentos alimentares e listando 48 espécies de peixes, moluscos e crustáceos como presas preferenciais. Fatores culturais e ambientais, tais como variações oceanográficas nas áreas de estudo e variações no uso de recursos influenciaram o conhecimento dos pescadores. Comparando as informações dos pescadores sobre as espécies mais comuns de cetáceos com aquelas contidas na literatura científica encontramos grande concordância em relação aos aspectos ecológicos e às interações com a pesca. Apenas para duas espécies (Stenella clymene e Inia geoffrensis) o conhecimento dos pescadores foi discordante da literatura. Estes casos de inconsistência entre os dois tipos de conhecimento podem refletir alguma falta de conhecimento dos pescadores sobre estas espécies ou, por outro lado, podem sugerir novas linhas de pesquisa. O conhecimento dos pescadores sobre as interações envolvendo cetáceos são úteis ao manejo das capturas acidentais, fornecendo informações sobre áreas críticas de captura e sugerindo locais e designs alternativos para as redes de espera. Sugerimos que este conhecimento seja considerado nas estratégias de manejo pesqueiro, já que pode contribuir para minimizar as interações negativas entre os cetáceos e a pesca / Abstract: This study records and analyzes fishers' local ecological knowledge (LEK) on cetaceans in the Brazilian coast. Fishers' (LEK) is empirical, practical-oriented, embedded with long-term records on local species or environmental events, and includes important biological, ecological and cultural information. Choosing Human Ecology and Ethnobiology as methodological base and considering cultural and oceanographic variations in the studied areas, we present fishers' knowledge through Folk Taxonomy and Ethnoecology. We interviewed 171 fishers from communities situated in four areas in Brazil: Soure (at Marajó Island, northern coast), Ponta Negra (at Natal, northeastern coast), São Sebastião (at southeastern coast) and Pântano do Sul (at Florianópolis, southern coast). Cetaceans are among the megafauna impacted by bycatch in fisheries. Nearly half of the cetacean species occurring in Brazil are classified by the IUCN Red List as "data deficient" due to lack of information about them. We studied fishers' LEK on cetaceans' classification and nomenclature. Fishers recognized 17 cetacean species and included them in four folk genera and 37 folk species. We recorded fishers' knowledge on cetaceans' ecology. Fishers reported 112 occurrence areas, providing information on preferential habitats, seasonality patterns, group sizes and reproduction for cetacean species. The topics most known by the fishers are occurrence areas and group sizes, and the least known is reproduction. The Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) and the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) are the most cited species. Fishers' LEK on cetaceans' interactions with fisheries indicated the following kinds of interactions: competition (with local fish and fishers), cooperation (to the fishers), and predation (on fisheries' target species or as prey for other top predators). The most common species in each place (Sotalia guianensis, Tursiops truncatus, Inia geoffrensis, Stenella clymene, Pontoporia blainvillei and Eubalaena australis) are the most known by the fishers, and those mentioned as the main cooperators or competitors. As a result of these interactions some cetaceans are accidentally caught by gillnets used near the coast. Fishers know details about the feeding habits of some species, describing 28 different feeding behaviors and listing 48 species of fishes, mollusks and crustaceans as preferential prey. There were variations among fishers' LEK in the study areas, probably influenced by the level of communities' dependence on natural resources and by variations in oceanographic parameters. We compare fishers' knowledge on the most common species with the information in the scientific literature and we found great concordance in relation to cetaceans' occurrence areas, seasonality, group sizes, prey items and their interactions with fisheries except for two species (Stenella clymene and Inia geoffrensis), to which fishers' information was discordant. These cases of inconsistency between LEK and scientific literature could reflect the fishers' lack of knowledge on these species or, conversely, could suggest new lines of investigation. Fishers' knowledge on the cetaceans' feeding behavior and their interactions to fisheries can be helpful, through the indication of bycatch critical areas and alternative location for setting gillnets, as well as possible alterations in gillnets' designs. We suggest that fishers' knowledge should be considered in fisheries management plans, helping to minimize the negative interactions between cetaceans and fisheries / Doutorado / Ecologia / Doutor em Ecologia

Les études de bioacoustique animale, qui reposent traditionnellement sur des modèles primates non humains et oiseaux chanteurs, convergent vers l'idée que la vie sociale serait la principale force motrice de l'évolution de la complexité de la communication. La comparaison avec les cétacés est également particulièrement intéressante d'un point de vue évolutif. Ce sont des mammifères qui forment des liens sociaux complexes, ont des capacités de plasticité acoustique, mais qui ont dû s'adapter à la vie marine, faisant de l'habitat une autre force de sélection déterminante. Leur habitat naturel impose des contraintes sur la production sonore, l'utilisation et la perception des signaux acoustiques, mais, de la même manière, limite les observations éthologiques. Etudier les cétacés captifs devient alors une source importante de connaissances sur ces animaux. Au-delà de l'analyse des structures acoustiques, l'étude des contextes sociaux dans lesquels les différentes vocalisations sont utilisées est essentielle à la compréhension de la communication vocale. Par rapport aux primates et aux oiseaux, la fonction sociale des signaux acoustiques des dauphins reste largement méconnue. En outre, les adaptations morpho-anatomiques de l’appareil vocal et auditif des cétacés à une vie sous-marine sont uniques dans le règne animal. Leur capacité à percevoir les sons produits dans l'air reste controversée en raison du manque de démonstrations expérimentales. Les objectifs de cette thèse étaient, d'une part, d'explorer l'utilisation contextuelle spontanée des signaux acoustiques dans un groupe captif de dauphins et, d'autre part, de tester expérimentalement les capacités à percevoir les sons sous l’eau comme dans l’air. Notre première étude observationnelle décrit la vie quotidienne de dauphins en captivité et montre que les signaux vocaux reflètent, à grande échelle, la répartition temporelle des activités sociales et non sociales dans un établissement sous contrôle humain. Notre deuxième étude met l'accent sur le contexte d’émission des trois principales catégories acoustiques précédemment identifiées dans le répertoire vocal des dauphins, à savoir les sifflements, les sons pulsés et les séries de clics. Nous avons trouvé des associations préférentielles entre chaque catégorie vocale et certains types d'interactions sociales ainsi que des combinaisons sonores non aléatoires et également dépendantes du contexte. Notre troisième étude a testé expérimentalement, dans des conditions standardisées, la réponse des dauphins à des « labels » acoustiques individuels donnés par l’homme et diffusés dans l’eau et dans l’air. Nous avons constaté que les dauphins peuvent reconnaître et réagir uniquement à leur propre « label » sonore, même lorsqu'il est diffusé dans l’air. En plus de confirmer l'audition aérienne, ces résultats soutiennent l’idée que les dauphins possèdent une notion d'identité. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats obtenus au cours de cette thèse suggèrent que certains signaux sociaux dans le répertoire des dauphins peuvent être utilisés pour communiquer des informations spécifiques sur les contextes comportementaux des individus impliqués et que les individus sont capables de généraliser leur concept d'identité à des signaux générés par l'homme. / Studies on animal bioacoustics, traditionally relying on non-human primate and songbird models, converge towards the idea that social life appears as the main driving force behind the evolution of complex communication. Comparisons with cetaceans is also particularly interesting from an evolutionary point of view. They are indeed mammals forming complex social bonds, with abilities in acoustic plasticity, but that had to adapt to marine life, making habitat another determining selection force. Their natural habitat constrains sound production, usage and perception but, in the same way, constrains ethological observations making studies of captive cetaceans an important source of knowledge on these animals. Beyond the analysis of acoustic structures, the study of the social contexts in which the different vocalizations are used is essential to the understanding of vocal communication. Compared to primates and birds, the social function of dolphins’ acoustic signals remains largely misunderstood. Moreover, the way cetaceans’ vocal apparatus and auditory system adapted morphoanatomically to an underwater life is unique in the animal kingdom. But their ability to perceive sounds produced in the air remains controversial due to the lack of experimental demonstrations. The objectives of this thesis were, on the one hand, to explore the spontaneous contextual usage of acoustic signals in a captive group of bottlenose dolphins and, on the other hand, to test experimentally underwater and aerial abilities in auditory perception. Our first observational study describes the daily life of our dolphins in captivity, and shows that vocal signalling reflects, at a large scale, the temporal distribution of social and non-social activities in a facility under human control. Our second observational study focuses on the immediate context of emission of the three main acoustic categories previously identified in the dolphins’ vocal repertoire, i.e. whistles, burst-pulses and click trains. We found preferential associations between each vocal category and specific types of social interactions and identified context-dependent patterns of sound combinations. Our third study experimentally tested, under standardized conditions, the response of dolphins to human-made individual sound labels broadcast under and above water. We found that dolphins were able to recognize and to react only to their own label, even when broadcast in the air. Apart from confirming aerial hearing, these findings go in line with studies supporting that dolphins possess a concept of identity. Overall, the results obtained during this thesis suggest that some social signals in the dolphin repertoire can be used to communicate specific information about the behavioural contexts of the individuals involved and that individuals are able to generalize their concept of identity for human-generated signals.