<p>Like other eukaryotic cells, plant cells contain an endomembrane system composed of compartmentalized organelles with specialized functions. Vesicle trafficking mediates the transport of materials between different organelles and between cells and the environment. The vesicle trafficking process is highly dynamic and plays essential roles in maintaining cellular homeostasis and environmental adaptation. Because of the essential roles of vesicle trafficking in plant growth and development, genes that are involved in vesicle trafficking often have redundant function when they exist as a large family or cause embryonic lethality when they exist as a signal gene or small gene family. Chemical genetics uses small molecule inhibitors to affect protein function without interfering with plant’s genome. Bioactive small molecules can generate a temporary perturbation of a biological system in a reversible and dose-dependent fashion, which allow us to observe dynamic cellular processes and discover new components in trafficking machineries. We recently discovered two small molecules named Endosidin2 (ES2) and Endosidin20 (ES20) that disrupt vesicle trafficking in plants. ES2 inhibits exocytosis by targeting the EXO70A1 subunit of the exocyst complex in plant cells. ES20 targets cellulose synthase (CESA) at the catalytic site and inhibits the delivery of Cellulose Synthase Complex (CSC) to the plasma membrane. This research thesis aims to characterize the specificity of ES2 on EXO70 homologs and identify new genes that mediate CSC trafficking. Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability (DARTS) assay was used to test the specificity of ES2 in targeting different EXO70s in Arabidopsis. Chemical genetic screen for mutants that have increased sensitivity was conducted to identify novel genes related to CSC trafficking. This project provides new insights in the specificity of ES2 in targeting different EXO70s in plants and the regulatory mechanisms of CSC trafficking that control plant cellulose synthesis.</p><p><br></p>

UDP-sugar metabolizing pyrophosphorylases provide the primary mechanism for de novo synthesis of UDP-sugars, which can then be used for myriads of glycosyltranferase reactions, producing cell wall carbohydrates, sucrose, glycoproteins and glycolipids, as well as many other glycosylated compounds. The pyrophosphorylases can be divided into three families: UDP-Glc pyrophosphorylase (UGPase), UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase (USPase) and UDP-N-acety lglucosamine pyrophosphorylase (UAGPase), which can be discriminated both by differences in accepted substrate range and amino acid sequences. This thesis focuses both on experimental examination (and re-examination) of some enzymatic/ biochemical properties of selected members of the UGPases and USPases and UAGPase families and on the design and implementation of a strategy to study in vivo roles of these pyrophosphorylases using specific inhibitors. In the first part, substrate specificities of members of the Arabidopsis UGPase, USPase and UAGPase families were comprehensively surveyed and kinetically analyzed, with barley UGPase also further studied with regard to itspH dependency, regulation by oligomerization, etc. Whereas all the enzymes preferentially used UTP as nucleotide donor, they differed in their specificity for sugar-1-P. UGPases had high activity with D-Glc-1-P, but could also react with Frc-1-P, whereas USPase reacted with arange of sugar-1-phosphates, including D-Glc-1-P, D-Gal-1-P, D-GalA-1-P, β-L-Ara-1-P and α-D-Fuc-1-P. In contrast, UAGPase2 reacted only with D-GlcNAc-1-P, D-GalNAc-1-P and, to some extent, with D-Glc-1-P. A structure activity relationship was established to connect enzyme activity, the examined sugar-1-phosphates and the three pyrophosphorylases. The UGPase/USPase/UAGPase active sites were subsequently compared in an attempt to identify amino acids which may contribute to the experimentally determined differences in substrate specificities. The second part of the thesis deals with identification and characterization of inhibitors of the pyrophosphorylases and with studies on in vivo effects of those inhibitors in Arabidopsis-based systems. A novel luminescence-based high-throughput assay system was designed, which allowed for quantitative measurement of UGPase and USPase activities, down to a pmol per min level. The assay was then used to screen a chemical library (which contained 17,500 potential inhibitors) to identify several compounds affecting UGPase and USPase. Hit-optimization on one of the compounds revealed even stronger inhibitors of UGPase and USPase which also strongly inhibited Arabidopsis pollen germination, by disturbing UDP-sugar metabolism. The inhibitors may represent useful tools to study in vivo roles of the pyrophosphorylases, as a complement to previous genetics-based studies. The thesis also includes two review papers on mechanisms of synthesis of NDP-sugars. The first review covered the characterization of USPase from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, whereas the second review was a comprehensive survey of NDP-sugar producing enzymes (not only UDP-sugar producing and not only pyrophosphorylases). All these enzymes were discussed with respect to their substrate specificities and structural features (if known) and their proposed in vivo functions.

Au cours de la reproduction sexuée chez les plantes supérieures, les grains de pollen adhérent aux stigmates, se réhydratent et produisent des tubes polliniques qui se développent à travers le tissu de transmission femelle afin d’assurer la fécondation. Les tubes polliniques sont des cellules dont la croissance est rapide et polarisée à l’apex du tube. Ils représentent de bons modèles pour étudier la dynamique de la croissance cellulaire. Les tubes polliniques sont aussi capables de percevoir des signaux de guidage et d’adhérer à la matrice extracellulaire du tissu femelle. Afin de comprendre le mécanisme cellulaire de la croissance et de l'adhésion du tube pollinique, deux approches différentes ont été utilisées. Premièrement, un criblage de 258 molécules a permis d’isoler deux composés qui perturbent in vitro la croissance des tubes polliniques de tabac, de tomate et d' Arabidopsis thaliana. Les effets d’un inhibiteur des monogalactosyldiacylglycérol synthases, la galvestine-1, ont également été étudiés sur la croissance des tubes. Nous avons montré que ces trois composés réduisent la longueur du tube pollinique et induisent des phénotypes anormaux de façon dose-dépendante. La germination du pollen était réduite avec les deux composés isolés du criblage. Ils ont également affecté la distribution des polymères de la paroi des tubes polliniques. Les composés ont perturbé la production de ROS, ont désorganisé la dynamique des filaments d'actine et de la protéine RIC4 suggérant qu'ils pourraient perturber le trafic de vésicules à l'extrémité du tube pollinique. Dans un second temps, nous avons mis au point une approche de déconstruction enzymatique d’une matrice enrichie en polysaccharides afin d’étudier les phénomènes d’adhésion in vitro des tubes polliniques. Ce test a été développé sur des plaques 96 puits pour les tubes polliniques d'A. thaliana, en utilisant différents extraits de parois cellulaires de fleurs et de feuilles d'A. thaliana comme matrice ou des pectines commerciales de citron avec différents degrés de méthylestérification. Les traitements avec une polygalacturonase et une endo-galactanase des pectines commerciales et de l'extrait de paroi cellulaire de feuilles ont totalement ou partiellement perturbé l'adhésion des tubes polliniques. Ces résultats montrent que les tubes polliniques d’A. thaliana sont capables d'adhérer à des pectines d'origines diverses (espèces et organes) et suggèrent que les chaînes d’homogalacturonanes, les chaînes latérales du rhamnogalacturonane-I, en particulier les galactanes, avec un poids moléculaire minimum seraient nécessaires à l'adhésion des tubes polliniques. / During plant sexual reproduction pollen grains land on the stigma, rehydrate and produce pollen tubes that grow through the female transmitting-tract tissue to assure a proper fertilization. Pollen tubes are fast tip-growing cells and represent a good model to study growth dynamics. Pollen tubes are able to perceive female guidance signals and to adhere to the extracellular matrix of the female transmitting tract. In order to improve our knowledge on the cell mechanisms implicated during pollen tube growth and adhesion, two different approaches have been used. First, 258 compounds were screened and two small compounds were isolated. They disrupted in vitro pollen tube growth of tobacco, tomato and Arabidopsis thaliana. The effects of an inhibitor of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthases, galvestine-1, on pollen tube growth were also studied. We showed that these 3 compounds reduced pollen tube length and induced abnormal phenotypes in a dose dependent manner. Pollen germination was significantly reduced with the two compounds isolated from the screen. They also affected cell wall material arrangement in pollen tube cell wall. The compounds modified ROS production and were able to disorganized actin filaments as well as the dynamic changes of the protein RIC4 suggesting that they might perturb vesicle trafficking at the pollen tube tip. Secondly, using a plant-made adhesion matrix in 96 –well plates, we studied the in vitro adhesion of A. thaliana pollen tubes. Different cell wall extracts from A. thaliana flowers and leaves or commercial lemon pectins with different degree of methylesterification were tested and the adhesive fractions were deconstructed by enzymatic treatments. Polygalacturonase or endo-galactanase treatments of commercial pectins and pectin-enriched cell wall extracts totally or partially disrupted pollen tube adhesion. Our results pointed out that A. thaliana pollen tubes are capable of adhering on pectins from diverse origins (species and organs) and suggested that homogalacturonan, the side chains of rhamnogalacturonana-I, especially galactans, as well as a minimum molecular weight may be necessary for pollen tube adhesion.

[ES] El tiempo de floración es uno de los caracteres más importantes que influyen en la productividad y el rendimiento de los cultivos. La identificación de compuestos sintéticos que sean bioactivos en el control de la inducción floral es de gran interés. Su identificación podría permitirnos ajustar el tiempo de floración en los cultivos, adaptándolos a las condiciones ambientales más favorables. Para identificar estos compuestos, hemos tomado dos enfoques diferentes: un cribado genético químico y la caracterización del metaboloma de transición floral. En primer lugar, realizamos un rastreo de genética química para identificar moléculas pequeñas que tengan el potencial de controlar la expresión del florígeno, FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) o la actividad o señalización de FT en Arabidopsis. Para ello, hemos utilizado plantas transgénicas que expresan el gen ß-GLUCURONIDASE (GUS) bajo el control del promotor FT para probar una librería de 360 moléculas preseleccionadas. Los resultados positivos obtenidos se volvieron a analizar mediante un cribado secundario basado en la expresión del gen reportero LUCIFERASE (LUC) bajo el control del promotor FT. Utilizando este enfoque, hemos identificado una molécula que induce con éxito la floración en condiciones de cultivo in vitro. En segundo lugar, hemos caracterizado la función del ácido pipecólico (Pip), una molécula previamente identificada como candidata a regular la floración. Hemos confirmado que las mutaciones en las enzimas responsables de la biosíntesis de Pip muestran una alteración en la respuesta del tiempo de floración. Además, hemos identificado un nuevo papel del Pip relacionado con el crecimiento y el tamaño de la roseta de Arabidopsis. Finalmente, utilizamos un sistema inducible basado en el promotor de CONSTANS (CO) que controla la expresión del gen endógeno de CO fusionado con el receptor de glucocorticoides de rata (CO::GR). De manera que con un solo tratamiento con dexametasona podemos inducir la floración. Con este sistema, realizamos un estudio del metaboloma de muestras de ápices y hojas mediante técnicas de metabolómica dirigida, lipidómica, cuantificación hormonal y transcriptómica. La integración de estos conjuntos de datos ómicos nos ha permitido identificar rutas metabólicas que se encuentran alteradas durante la transición floral. A su vez, la caracterización de mutantes de pérdida de función que codifican enzimas clave de esas vías metabólicas, reveló que algunos de estos mutantes mostraban un fenotipo afectado para el tiempo de floración. Entre ellos, nos enfocamos en la caracterización de los genes relacionados con el metabolismo de la rafinosa, un oligosacárido de reserva. Mutantes afectados en el gen RAFFINOSE SYNTHASE 5 (RS5) presentan un fenotipo de floración temprana y fertilidad reducida. En base a los resultados obtenidos, proponemos un modelo en el que, durante la transición floral, se produce una reestructuración de las ratios entre carbohidratos sencillos (monosacáridos y disacáridos) y de reserva, como la rafinosa. Estos cambios podrían ser modulados por el ácido abscísico (ABA) y por genes relacionados con la floración, desencadenando cambios en el metabolismo de la trehalosa y promoviendo una expresión temprana de FT. / [CA] El temps de floració és un dels caràcters amb més influència en la productivitat i el rendiment dels cultius. La identificació de compostos sintètics bioactius per al control de la inducció floral és de gran interés, ja que la seua identificació podria permetre ajustar el temps de floració dels cultius, aspecte que podria contribuir a l'adaptació a condicions ambientals més favorables. Per a identificar aquests compostos, hem portat a terme dues aproximacions diferents: un garbellat genètic químic i la caracterització del metaboloma de la transició floral. En primer lloc, hem realitzat un cribratge genètic-químicper a identificar xicotetes molècules amb potencial per a controlar l'expressió del florígen, FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) o l'activitat o la senyalització de FT a Arabidopsis. Per a portar a terme aquest cribratge, hem utilitzat plantes transgèniques que expressen el gen ß-GLUCURONIDASE (GUS) sota el control del promotor de FT amb les quals hem assajat una llibreria de 360 molècules preseleccionades de manera prèvia. Els resultats positius obtinguts en aquest cribratge t s'han sotmés a un cribratge secundari basat en l'expressió del gen reporter LUCIFERASE (LUC) sota el control del promotor FT. La utilització d'aquesta primera aproximació ha permés la idenfiticació d'una molècula que indueix amb èxit la floració en condicions de cultiu in vitro. En En segon lloc, hem caracteritzat la funció de l'àcid pipecòlic (Pip), una molècula prèviament identificada com a candidata a regular la floració. Aquesta aproximació ens ha permet confirmar que mutacions als enzims responsables de la biosíntesi de Pip comporten una alteració al temps de floració. A més, en aquest treball hem identificat un nou paper del Pip relacionat amb el creixement i la grandària de la roseta d'Arabidopsis. Finalment, hem utilitzat un sistema induïble basat en el promotor de CONSTANS (CO) que controla l'expressió del gen endogen de CO fusionat al receptor de glucocorticoides de rata (CO::GR). Aquesta construcció ens proporciona una ferramenta amb la qual induir la floració amb un sol tractament amb dexametasona. A continuació, hem realitzat un estudi del metaboloma de mostres d'àpexs i fulles mitjançant tècniques de metabolòmica dirigida, lipidómica, quantificació hormonal i transcriptòmica. La integració d'aquest conjunt de dades ómiques ens ha permés identificar les rutes metabòliques que es troben alterades durant la transició floral. Al mateix temps, la caracterització de mutants de pèrdua de funció que codifiquen enzims clau per a aquestes rutes metabòliques, ha revelat que alguns d'aquests mutants mostren un fenotip afectat pel que fa al temps de floració. Dintre dels mutants analitzats, ens hem centrat en la caracterització dels gens relacionats amb el metabolisme de la rafinosa, un oligosacàrid de reserva. Els mutants del gen RAFFINOSE SYNTHASE 5 (RS5) presenten un fenotip de floració primerenca i fertilitat reduïda. Sobre la base dels resultats obtinguts, proposem un model en el qual, durant la transició floral, es produeix una reestructuració de les ràtios entre carbohidrats senzills (monosacàrids i disacàrids) i de reserva, com la rafinosa. Aquests canvis podrien ser modulats per l'àcid abscísic (ABA) i per gens relacionats amb la floració, i desencadenariencanvis al metabolisme de la trehalosa, així com la generació de l'expressió primerenca de FT. / [EN] Flowering time is one of the most important traits affecting crop productivity and yield. The identification of natural or synthetic bioactive compounds for the control of flowering induction is of great interest. The identification of compounds with the potential to regulate flowering could allow us to fine-tune flowering responses in crops and adapt them to the changing environmental conditions. To identify these compounds, we have taken two different approaches: a chemical genetic screening and the characterization of the metabolome of floral transition. First, we performed a chemical genetic screening to identify small molecules that have the potential to control the expression of the florigen FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) or FT activity or signaling in Arabidopsis. We used transgenic plants expressing the ß-GLUCURONIDASE gene (GUS) under the control of the FT promoter to test a preselected library of 360 molecules. Positive hits were retested by a secondary screening based on the expression of the LUCIFERASE (LUC) reporter gene under the control of the FT promoter. Using this approach, we have identified one molecule that successfully induces flowering under in vitro culture conditions. Secondly, we have characterized the function of pipecolic acid (Pip), a molecule previously identified as a candidate to regulate flowering time. We have confirmed that mutations in enzymes responsible for Pip biosynthesis display an altered flowering response. A new role for Pip in rosette growth is also revealed in this work. Finally, we used an inducible system based on the promoter of CONSTANS (CO) driving the expression of CO fused to the rat glucocorticoid receptor (CO::GR). Such a construction provides a tool to induce flowering with a single dexamethasone treatment. We then performed a comprehensive metabolomic study of the shoot apex and leaf samples that included targeted metabolomics, lipidomics, hormone quantification, and transcriptomics. Integration of these omic datasets has allowed us to point out metabolic pathways that are altered during floral induction. Characterization of loss-of-function mutants coding key enzymes of those metabolic pathways revealed that some of these mutants showed a flowering time phenotype. Among them, we focused on the characterization of the contribution of the raffinose metabolism, a storage oligosaccharide, to the determination of flowering time. Mutants affecting RAFFINOSE SYNTHASE 5 (RS5) exhibit an early flowering phenotype and reduced fertility. We propose a model in which the balance between simple and storage carbohydrates in the apex changes during floral induction. This change could be modulated by ABA and flowering-related genes, and it triggers changes in trehalose metabolism, promoting flowering by an early FT upregulation. / Praena Tamayo, J. (2022). Identification of Bioactive Molecules in the Control of Flowering Time [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/185177 / TESIS

Dans l'introduction, diverses voies de trafic intracellulaire et endocytose seront discutées. Je familiarise le lecteur avec des protéines inactivant les ribosomes, en mettant l'accent sur la structure, l'endocytose, et le trafic intracellulaire de la toxine bactérienne Shiga toxin (STX). STx et la ricine suivent la voie rétrograde pour exercer leur effet toxique sur les cellules. Ils sont respectivement, une menace maladie infectieuse pour la santé humaine et des outils potentiels pour le bioterrorisme pour lequel aucun antidote n’existe actuellement. D'un criblage à haut débit, Retro-1 et Retro-2 avaient déjà été identifiés comme de puissants inhibiteurs de la voie rétrograde à l'interface des endosomes précoces-TGN, et Retro-2 a été démontré pour protéger les souris contre la ricine. Parmi les facteurs de trafic analysés, seule la protéine SNARE syntaxine-5 a été ré- localisée dans les cellules traitées avec Rétro - 2. / In the introduction, various endocytic and intracellular trafficking pathways will be discussed. I acquaint the reader with ribosome-inactivating proteins, with emphasis on the structure, endocytosis, and intracellular trafficking of the bacterial toxin Shiga toxin (STx). STx and ricin follow the retrograde route to exert their toxic effect on cells. They are respectively, an infectious disease threat to human health and potential tools for bioterrorism for which no antidote currently exists. From a high throughput screening, Retro-1 and Retro-2 had previously been identified as potent inhibitors of the retrograde route at the early endosomes-TGN interface, and Retro-2 was demonstrated to protect mice against ricin. Of the trafficking factors analyzed, only the SNARE protein syntaxin-5 was re-localized in Retro-2 treated cells. Yet, whether syntaxin-5 is the direct target of Retro-2 and whether its re-localization was directly responsible for retrograde transport inhibition remained to be established.