<p>Antisense oligonucleotides (ODN) may interfere in gene expression on the basis of hybridising to its complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence in the cell thereby preventing the synthesis of the peptide. Therefore, these ODNs may be potential drugs to treat human diseases by “knocking down” the expression of responsible genes or correcting the maturation process of mRNA in the field called antisense therapy. Moreover, antisense ODNs upon labelling are also potential imaging agents to monitor gene expression <i>in vivo</i>, i.e. to accomplish <i>in vivo</i> hybridisation. This would provide a non-invasive tool compared to present methods, which require tissue samples. </p><p>This goal may be reached using positron emission tomography (PET) methodology. PET is a most advanced <i>in vivo</i> imaging technology, which would allow exploring the fate of radionuclide-labelled antisense ODNs in the body; thereby providing information about biodistribution and quantitative accumulation in tissues to assess pharmacokinetic properties of ODNs. This kind of evaluation is important as part of the characterisation of antisense therapeutics but also as part of the development of antisense imaging agents.</p><p>The present study aimed to investigate ⁷⁶Br- and ⁶⁸Ga-labelled ODNs of five different modifications: phosphodiester, phosphorothioate, 2'-<i>O</i>-methyl phosphodiester, locked nucleic acid (LNA), and peptide nucleic acid. The study included exploration of the hybridisation abilities of these ODNs after labelling; furthermore, the biodistribution, metabolite analysis and uptake of the ODNs in rats regarding non-hybridisation and hybridisation specific uptake was conducted. Among the ODNs studied, LNA-DNA mixmer (LNA and DNA nucleotides in alternation along the sequence) displayed the most promising characteristics considering a higher retention in tissues, stability and longer plasma residence. However, biodistribution data demonstrated a non-hybridisation specific distribution in rat tissues with kidney, liver, spleen and bone marrow being the organs of high uptake. Scavenger receptors or other saturable processes unrelated to hybridisation may play a role in tissue uptake and in clearance of antisense ODNs through these organs. These processes may be sequence dependent suggesting that proof of <i>in vivo</i> hybridisation through imaging needs much more elaborate evaluations than just comparison of sense and antisense sequences and proving dose-dependency.</p>

Antisense oligonucleotides (ODN) may interfere in gene expression on the basis of hybridising to its complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence in the cell thereby preventing the synthesis of the peptide. Therefore, these ODNs may be potential drugs to treat human diseases by “knocking down” the expression of responsible genes or correcting the maturation process of mRNA in the field called antisense therapy. Moreover, antisense ODNs upon labelling are also potential imaging agents to monitor gene expression in vivo, i.e. to accomplish in vivo hybridisation. This would provide a non-invasive tool compared to present methods, which require tissue samples. This goal may be reached using positron emission tomography (PET) methodology. PET is a most advanced in vivo imaging technology, which would allow exploring the fate of radionuclide-labelled antisense ODNs in the body; thereby providing information about biodistribution and quantitative accumulation in tissues to assess pharmacokinetic properties of ODNs. This kind of evaluation is important as part of the characterisation of antisense therapeutics but also as part of the development of antisense imaging agents. The present study aimed to investigate 76Br- and 68Ga-labelled ODNs of five different modifications: phosphodiester, phosphorothioate, 2'-O-methyl phosphodiester, locked nucleic acid (LNA), and peptide nucleic acid. The study included exploration of the hybridisation abilities of these ODNs after labelling; furthermore, the biodistribution, metabolite analysis and uptake of the ODNs in rats regarding non-hybridisation and hybridisation specific uptake was conducted. Among the ODNs studied, LNA-DNA mixmer (LNA and DNA nucleotides in alternation along the sequence) displayed the most promising characteristics considering a higher retention in tissues, stability and longer plasma residence. However, biodistribution data demonstrated a non-hybridisation specific distribution in rat tissues with kidney, liver, spleen and bone marrow being the organs of high uptake. Scavenger receptors or other saturable processes unrelated to hybridisation may play a role in tissue uptake and in clearance of antisense ODNs through these organs. These processes may be sequence dependent suggesting that proof of in vivo hybridisation through imaging needs much more elaborate evaluations than just comparison of sense and antisense sequences and proving dose-dependency.

Les peptides antimicrobiens (PAMs) représentent des composants importants de l`immunité innée. Ils sont présents dans la plupart des organismes multicellulaires et constituent la première ligne de défense contre les infections. Ils possèdent un large éventail d`activités, une non-toxicité contre les cellules de l`hôte et des effets synergiques avec les antibiotiques conventionnels. Par conséquent, ils peuvent être d`excellents candidats dans le développement de nouveaux antibiotiques pour lutter contre la résistance de microorganismes. Concernant les PAMs dérivés de la chromogranine A (CgA), la cateslytine (Ctl) présente des activités antimicrobiennes directes et des propriétés immunomodulatrices. Dans ma thèse, j`ai cherché à caractériser l`épipeptide D-Ctl, où tous les résidus en conformation-L ont été remplacés par des résidus en conformation-D. Tout d`abord, la stabilité dans les surnageants bactériens et des dosages de l`activité antimicrobienne ont été réalisés, ainsi que l`analyse de viabilité des cellules et des dosages des cytokines libérées par les cellules immunitaires. L`efficacité de D-Ctl a été comparée à celle de L-Ctl contre des souches bactériennes, puis les CMIs ont été déterminées et comparées dans le cas de combinaisons avec des antibiotiques conventionnels, afin de montrer un effet synergique et/ou additif. De plus, D-Ctl ne déclenche pas de résistance chez E. coli. Des tests de cytotoxicité ont été effectués sur plusieurs types de lignées cellulaires et de PBMCs. Les effets inflammatoires aussi ont été testés. Ensuite, le modèle bactérien E. coli MDR a été utilisé pour des analyses physico-chimiques, telles que la microscopie à épifluorescence, la spectroscopie ATR-FTIR et la microscopie à force atomique. Enfin, le brevet D-Ctl a été déposé en 2016 sous le numéro EP 16306539.4 « Nouveau peptide de cateslytine en conformation D ». En conclusion, D-Ctl est capable de tuer rapidement un large spectre de micro-organismes, et il pourrait potentialiser l`effet antimicrobien de plusieurs antibiotiques. / Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent important components of innate immunity. They are present in most multicellular organisms and constitute the first line of defense against infections. They exhibit a large spectrum of activities, a non-toxicity against host cells and synergistic effects with conventional antibiotics. Therefore, they can be as excellent candidates in the development of new antibiotics to fight pathogens resistance. Concerning to AMPs derived from chromogranin A (CgA), Cateslytin (Ctl) represents a new antibiotic, which displays direct antimicrobial activities and immunomodulatory properties. In my thesis, I aimed to characterize the epipeptide D-Ctl, where all (L-conformation) residues were replaced by (D-conformation) residues. Firstly, antimicrobial assays were performed, cells viability, immune assays, and the stability in bacterial supernatant was tested. The efficiency of D-Ctl was compared with L-Ctl against bacterial strains, then MICs were determined and compared with combinations in presence of classical antibiotics in order to show synergistic or/and additive effect. Moreover, D-Ctl does not trigger resistance in E. coli. Also, cytotoxicity assays were performed on several types of cell line and PBMCs. Inflammatory effects were tested too. Then, bacterial model E. coli MDR was used for physicochemical analysis such as epifluorescence microscopy, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. Finally, D-Ctl patent has been deposited in 2016 under the number EP 16306539.4 “New D-configured cateslytin peptide”. To conclude: D-Ctl is able to rapidly kill a broad spectrum of microorganisms, and it could potentiate the antimicrobial effect of several antibiotics.

<p>The presence of protein amyloid in pancreas and its association to diabetes was first described 100 years ago in 1901, but was not identified as Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP) until 1986. The aim of the present work was to determine the role of the beta cell hormone, IAPP, in normal pancreatic islet physiology and during early disturbances of islet function.</p><p>Intra-islet peptides, i.e. chromogranin peptides and an extra-islet peptide, i.e. leptin, were studied to identify possible endogenous regulators of IAPP and insulin secretion. Chromogranin-B, but not chromogranin-A or pancreastatin, had the ability to inhibit islet IAPP and insulin release, suggesting that chromogranin-B may serve as an autocrine regulator of IAPP and insulin secretion. </p><p>Leptin had a more potent effect on IAPP secretion than on insulin secretion, which was dissociated from effects on islet glucose metabolism. Glucose oxidation rates were increased at physiological leptin concentrations, whereas higher leptin concentrations showed an inhibitory effect and chronically high leptin concentrations had no effect.</p><p>Female NOD mice were studied to investigate the release of IAPP in the progression to type 1 diabetes. The release of IAPP was lower than that of insulin from immune cell infiltrated islets, indicating preferential insulin release during the early course of the disease. </p><p>IAPP is expressed at an early embryonic stage. The effect of IAPP on cell proliferation in neonatal rat islets was studied in the search for a physiological role of IAPP. IAPP concentrations of (1-1000) nM stimulated neonatal islet cell proliferation mostly in beta cells and to a lesser extent in alpha cells. IAPP did not have any marked effect on the islet cell death frequency. These data indicate a role for IAPP as a potential regulator of beta cell proliferation in neonatal pancreatic islet.</p><p>It is concluded that IAPP may be involved in regulation of pancreatic beta cell function both in fetal and adult life.</p>

<p>Midgut carcinoid tumours are rare with an incidence of 0.5-2.1/100 000. The primary tumour is usually small and grows slowly but has almost always set metastases at diagnosis. When radically operated, most patients will eventually recur in their disease. </p><p>We evaluated different methods in detecting recurrent disease in 61 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours that had been radically operated. Thirty-eight patients have been diagnosed with a recurrence. In 32/38 of these patients P-Chromogranin A was the first method to indicate a recurrence. We therefore recommend using P-CgA in the work up in these patients.</p><p>We investigated characteristics, survival and independent factors that could be of bad prognostic value. We found that in our 284 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours, 208/284 (73%) had distant metastases and 30/284 (11%) had carcinoid heart disease. Median survival was 115.5 months and five-year survival was 77%. In a multivariate analysis liver metastases and carcinoid heart disease were poor prognostic factors.</p><p>We performed a phase II study with octreotide pamoate investigating the clinical effect in 12 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours in a progressive phase. We found that 9/12 (75%) were stabilised for a median duration of 12 months. We think that this is a good effect considering the advanced stage.</p><p>We investigated the frequency of four different tyrosine kinase receptors, platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGR) α and β, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and c-kit, in 36 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours with immunohistochemistry. We found that 13/34 (38%) tumour samples expressed PDGFRα, 29/33 (88%) PDGFRβ, 24/33 (73%) EGFR, whereas none expressed c-kit. This implicates that midgut carcinoid tumours might be susceptible to treatment with tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitors. </p>

The presence of protein amyloid in pancreas and its association to diabetes was first described 100 years ago in 1901, but was not identified as Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP) until 1986. The aim of the present work was to determine the role of the beta cell hormone, IAPP, in normal pancreatic islet physiology and during early disturbances of islet function. Intra-islet peptides, i.e. chromogranin peptides and an extra-islet peptide, i.e. leptin, were studied to identify possible endogenous regulators of IAPP and insulin secretion. Chromogranin-B, but not chromogranin-A or pancreastatin, had the ability to inhibit islet IAPP and insulin release, suggesting that chromogranin-B may serve as an autocrine regulator of IAPP and insulin secretion. Leptin had a more potent effect on IAPP secretion than on insulin secretion, which was dissociated from effects on islet glucose metabolism. Glucose oxidation rates were increased at physiological leptin concentrations, whereas higher leptin concentrations showed an inhibitory effect and chronically high leptin concentrations had no effect. Female NOD mice were studied to investigate the release of IAPP in the progression to type 1 diabetes. The release of IAPP was lower than that of insulin from immune cell infiltrated islets, indicating preferential insulin release during the early course of the disease. IAPP is expressed at an early embryonic stage. The effect of IAPP on cell proliferation in neonatal rat islets was studied in the search for a physiological role of IAPP. IAPP concentrations of (1-1000) nM stimulated neonatal islet cell proliferation mostly in beta cells and to a lesser extent in alpha cells. IAPP did not have any marked effect on the islet cell death frequency. These data indicate a role for IAPP as a potential regulator of beta cell proliferation in neonatal pancreatic islet. It is concluded that IAPP may be involved in regulation of pancreatic beta cell function both in fetal and adult life.

Midgut carcinoid tumours are rare with an incidence of 0.5-2.1/100 000. The primary tumour is usually small and grows slowly but has almost always set metastases at diagnosis. When radically operated, most patients will eventually recur in their disease. We evaluated different methods in detecting recurrent disease in 61 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours that had been radically operated. Thirty-eight patients have been diagnosed with a recurrence. In 32/38 of these patients P-Chromogranin A was the first method to indicate a recurrence. We therefore recommend using P-CgA in the work up in these patients. We investigated characteristics, survival and independent factors that could be of bad prognostic value. We found that in our 284 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours, 208/284 (73%) had distant metastases and 30/284 (11%) had carcinoid heart disease. Median survival was 115.5 months and five-year survival was 77%. In a multivariate analysis liver metastases and carcinoid heart disease were poor prognostic factors. We performed a phase II study with octreotide pamoate investigating the clinical effect in 12 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours in a progressive phase. We found that 9/12 (75%) were stabilised for a median duration of 12 months. We think that this is a good effect considering the advanced stage. We investigated the frequency of four different tyrosine kinase receptors, platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGR) α and β, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and c-kit, in 36 malignant midgut carcinoid tumours with immunohistochemistry. We found that 13/34 (38%) tumour samples expressed PDGFRα, 29/33 (88%) PDGFRβ, 24/33 (73%) EGFR, whereas none expressed c-kit. This implicates that midgut carcinoid tumours might be susceptible to treatment with tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitors.

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs), originally described as carcinoids, represent a rare and heterogeneous group of neoplasms associated with intensive secretion of hormones, bioactive peptides and amines. Most of the patients are diagnosed at a late stage of disease, often with liver metastases. Surgery remains the main treatment to control metastatic disease, but is not curative. Oncolytic virotherapy represents a promising approach to treat cancer and different strategies have been exploited to restrict viral replication to tumor cells. We developed an oncolytic adenovirus based on serotype 5, Ad5[CgA-E1A], where the chromogranin A (CgA) promoter controls expression of the E1A gene and thereby virus replication. We found that Ad5[CgA-E1A], selectively replicates in NET cells and it is able to suppress fast-growing human BON carcinoid tumors in nude mice. The activity of Ad5[CgA-E1A] was not completely blocked in liver cells. We further repressed virus replication in hepatocytes by targeting E1A with miR122, an miRNA specifically expressed in the liver. miRNAs bind to mRNA and induce its cleavage or translational blockage. By insertion of tandem repeats of miR122 target sequences in 3’UTR of E1A gene, we observed reduced E1A protein expression and replication arrest in miR122 expressing liver cells. The oncolytic potency of the miR122-targeted virus was not affected in NET cells. Since some NET and neuroblastoma cells express high levels of somatostatin receptors (SSTRs), we introduced in the virus fiber knob cyclic peptides, which contain four amino acids (FWKT) and mimic the binding site of somatostatin for SSTRs. The FWKT-modified Ad5 transduces midgut carcinoid cells from liver metastases about 3-4 times better than non-modified Ad5. Moreover, FWKT-modified Ad5 overcomes neutralization in an ex vivo human blood loop model to a greater extent than Ad5, indicating that the fiber knob modification may prolong the systemic circulation time. NETs represent a huge therapeutic challenge and novel diagnostic markers are needed for early detection and effective treatment of NETs. We have profiled primary tumors and liver metastases of ileocaceal NETs, using Affymetrix microarrays and advanced bioinformatics. We have identified six novel marker genes and show high similarity between primary lesions and liver metastases transcriptome by hierarchical clustering analysis.

Les premières souches bactériennes résistantes aux antibiotiques sont connues depuis 70 ans et se sont multipliées ces dernières années posant un grave problème de santé publique. Parmi les nombreux types d’infections induites par ces bactéries, nous nous sommes intéressés aux infections intestinales qui peuvent dégénérer en maladies inflammatoires de l’intestin et cancers. Notre travail de thèse a consisté à proposer des outils thérapeutiques dans le traitement des pathologies intestinales infectieuses : des peptides antimicrobiens dérivés de la chromogranine A et des extraits de plantes de la médecine traditionnelle béninoise. La chromogranine A est une protéine libérée par les cellules nerveuses, neuroendocrines et immunitaires au cours d’un stress et maturée en peptides. Des peptides actifs contre quatre souches bactériennes pathogènes (Klebsiella oxytoca, Salmonella enterica, Shigella sonnei et Vibrio cholera non O1) ont été identifiés et l’interaction bactérie-peptide analysée. L’étude de la combinaison peptide-antibiotique montre que la cateslytine permet de réduire les doses d’antibiotiques nécessaires. Ensuite, nous avons étudié l’implication de deux peptides sur un modèle de cellules neuroendocrines, les cellules BON. La chromofungine provoque la stimulation des cellules BON en induisant un influx de calcium extracellulaire, tandis que la catestatine est capable de bloquer l’activité de la chromofungine.Après un screening des extraits de 14 plantes du Bénin, nous avons isolé deux molécules, la sinensétine et l’O-tétraméthyléther scutellaréine, responsables de l’activité antibactérienne de Chromolaena odorata contre les pathogènes étudiés. / The first bacterial strains resistant to antibiotics appeared 70 years ago and have proliferated in recent years causing a serious public health problem. Such bacteria are responsible of several types of infections including intestinal infections with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases and cancers. This work consisted of proposing new therapeutic tools in the treatment of intestinal pathologies. In this context, we have studied antimicrobial peptides derived from chromogranin A and plant extracts used in Beninese traditional medicine for the treatment of such diseases. Chromogranin A is a protein produced by nervous, endocrine and immune cells during a stress and processed to generate biologically active peptides. We identified antimicrobial peptides, active against four pathogenic bacterial strains (Klebsiella oxytoca, Salmonella enterica, Shigella sonnei and Vibrio cholera non O1) and analyzed the bacteria-peptide interactions. Moreover, the study of the peptide-antibiotic combination shows that cateslytin is useful for reducing doses of antibiotic drugs. In addition of this work, we have studied the effects of two peptides derived from chromogranin A on neuroendocrine cells with model of BON cells. Chromofungin stimules BON cells by inducing an influx of extracellular calcium, whereas catestatin is able to block chromofungin’s activity.With plant extracts, after a screening on 14 plants from Benin, our works enabled us to isolate two active molecules, sinensetin and O-tetramethylether scutellarein, responsible of the antimicrobial activity of Chromolaena odorata against the studied pathogenic strains.

Les cellules neuroendocrines possèdent d’une part la voie de sécrétion constitutive, existant dans tous les types cellulaires, qui permet le renouvellement continu de la membrane plasmique et de la matrice extracellulaire, et d’autre part la voie de sécrétion régulée, spécifique aux cellules sécrétrices, qui permet la sécrétion d’hormones suite à la stimulation de la cellule. Les organites impliqués dans cette dernière voie sont des granules de sécrétion à cœur dense (GS), sui stockent les hormones ainsi que les glycoprotéines solubles, les granines. Parmi ces dernières, la chromogranine A (CgA) joue un rôle majeur dans la biogénèse des GS mais les mécanismes moléculaires ne sont pas clairement définis. Dans une lignée de cellules non-endocrines COS7 (dépourvues de granines et donc de voie de sécrétion régulée), mon équipe d’accueil a démontré que l’expression de la CgA induit la formation de vésicules présentant une structure et des fonctions caractéristiques des GS. L’analyse du protéome des GS purifiés à partir d’une lignée de cellules COS7 exprimant de manière stable la CgA (COS7-CgA) a révélé la présence de protéines liant les éléments du cytosquelette et le calcium. Durant ma thèse, nous avons focalisé notre attention sur la myosine 1b (myo1b), l’actine et le complexe de nucléation de l’actine Arp2/3 du fait de leur capacité à induire le bourgeonnement de compartiments post-golgiens dans des cellules non-endocrines. Nous avons montré (i) que la myo1b contrôle la formation des GS ainsi que la sécrétion régulée au sein des cellules COS7-CgA et des cellules neuroendocriniennes PC12, et (ii) que la myo1b et le complexe Arp2/3 permettent le recrutement d’actine fibrillaire dans la région golgienne et la formation des GS. Ces travaux montrent pour la première fois l’implication du complexe actomyosine dans la formation des GS. Afin d’identifier le lien moléculaire entre la CgA luminale et la myo1b cytosolique, nous avons recherché les interactions potentielles de la CgA avec les lipides de la membrane du réseau trans-golgien (TGN). Nous avons montré (i) que la CgA interagit avec l’acide phosphatidique (PA), (ii) que les espèces de PA prédominantes sont communes dans les membranes golgienne et granulaire, (iii) que la CgA est capable d’interagir spécifiquement avec des espèces de PA intégrées avec des membranes artificielles et (iv) que l’inhibition de la production du PA au niveau golgien altère significativement la formation des GS et la sécrétion régulée dans les cellules neuroendocrines. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus dans le cadre de ma thèse suggère que l’interaction entre la CgA et le PA est cruciale pour la biogenèse de GS à partir de la membrane du TGN. Nous émettons l’hypothèse que cette interaction est à l’origine de la formation de microdomaines enrichis en PA qui contrôleraient la courbure de la membrane du TGN et le recrutement du complexe actomyosine. / Neuroendocrine cells exhibit the constitutive secretory pathway which is common all cell types and allows the continuous renewal of the plasma membrane and the extracellular matrix, and the regulated secretory pathway, which is specific to secretory cells and allows hormone secretion following cell stimulation. The organelles supporting the latter pathway are dense-core secretory granules (SG), which store hormones and soluble glycoproteins, called granins. Among these, chromogranin A (CgA) plays a major role in the biogenesis of SG but the molecular mechanisms underlying this process are not clearly understood. Using non-endocrine COS7 cell line (which are devoid of granins and regulated secretory pathway), my host team has demonstrated that the CgA expression induces the formation of vesicles with structural and functional characteristic of SG. The proteome analysis of purified SG from a COS7 cell line stably expressing CgA (COS7-CgA) revealed the presence of cytoskeleton- and calcium-binding proteins. During my thesis, we focused our attention on myosin 1b (myo1b), actin and actin nucleation complex Arp2/3 due to their ability to induce the budding of post-Golgi compartments in non-endocrine cells. We have shown (i) that myo1b controls SG formation as welle as the regulated secretion in COS7-CgA and PC12 neuroendocrine cells, (ii) that myo1b and Arp2/3 complex are required to recruit fibrillar actin (F-actin) to the Golgi region and to SG formation. These results highlight for the first time the involvement of the actomyosin complex in SG formation. In order to identify the molecular link between luminal CgA and Cytosolic myo1b, we investigated the potential interactions of CgA with lipids of the trans-Golgi network (TGN) membrane. We showed (i) that CgA interacts with phosphatidic acid (PA), (ii) that the predominant PA species are common in Golgi and granular membranes, (iii) that Cg Ais able to interact specifically with these PA species included in artificial membranes, and (iv) that inhibition of PA production at the Golgi level significantly alters SG formation and regulated secretion in neuroendocrine cells. All these results obtained during my thesis suggest that the interaction between CgA and PA is crucial for SG biogenesis from the TGN membrane. We suggest that this interaction is at the origin of the formation of PA-enriched microdomains that could control the curvature of the TGN membrane and the recruitment of the actomyosin complex.