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La question des rapports entre systématique phylogénétique et biologie évolutive est abordée sous l'angle de la fondation problématique des concepts, principes et règles de la première sur les hypothèses que formule la seconde concernant les processus évolutifs. La question de la nature et du rôle des hypothèses évolutives utilisées par la cladistique est posée à chaque étape de la méthode : formation de taxons de bases, formulation d'hypothèses d'homologie primaires, mise à l'épreuve de ces hypothèses avec la construction de cladogrammes et dérivation de classifications. L'analyse des choix effectués par les cladistes des années 1950 à 1980 aboutit à la caractérisation de trois rôles joués par la théorie de l'évolution dans la cladistique: ceux de théorie fondatrice, de théorie auxiliaire et de théorie d'arrière-plan. / The question of the relationships between phylogenetic systematics and evolutionary biology is discussed in terms of the problematical foundation of the concepts, principles and rules of the former upon the assumptions that the latter formulates about evolutionary processes. The question of the nature and role of evolutionary hypotheses used by cladistics is asked at each step of the method : formation of basic taxa, formulation of primary homology hypotheses, test of these hypotheses with the building of cladograms, and derivation of classifications. The analysis of the choices made by cladists from the 1950s to the 1980s leads to the characterization of three roles played by the theory of evolution in cladistics: those of founding theory, auxiliary theory and background theory.

Tanytrachelos ahynis, a small (21 cm long) aquatic protorosaur from the Upper Triassic sediments in the Cow Branch Formation of the Newark Supergroup, has been briefly described in 1979 by P. E. Olsen. A growing addition of nearly 200 specimens and the availability of CT imaging allow for an extensively detailed redescription. This redescription fills in missing data in cladistic analyses of Protorosauria, allowing for protorosaur monophyly to be retested with a more robust data set. Two hundred and ninety specimens and two CT scans of specimens were examined, with seventy linear measurements, four angular measurements, and five derived variables comprising the quantitative observations. These qualitative and quantitative observations then provided data for Tanytrachelos in two cladistic analyses of Protorosauria. The first analysis included the outgroup Petrolacosaurus, twenty-one protorosaurs, and nine other archosauromorphs. The second analysis included the twenty taxa within this sample that had a data completeness of 50% or higher. Diagnostic qualities of Tanytrachelos include large orbits (11% - 13% the lateral area of the skull), a fused axis and atlas, a tail that spans half the vertebral length, and paired curved heterotopic bones in some specimens (a sign of sexual dimorphism). The disparity of size between the hind and fore limbs, as well as traces of soft tissue, suggest that Tanytrachelos propelled through the water with its back legs. This taxon is similar to Gwyneddosaurus, found in the Lockatong Formation (Newark Supergroup) in Montgomery County, PA, but should maintain its generic name due to lack of diagnostic qualities for Gwyneddosaurus. With the new observations of Tanytrachelos included, each of the two cladistic analyses yielded a single most parsimonious tree presenting a paraphyletic Protorosauria. Both results placed Prolacerta within the confines of Protorosauria, in contrast with the previous suggestion by three publications that Prolacerta was not a true protorosaur. The analysis of all taxa presented Boreopricea as the most basal protorosaur, while the analysis of the twenty most complete taxa presented Protorosaurus as most primitive. Neither tree fully agrees with any previously published data, partly due to differences in taxa sampling between studies. / Ph. D.

Competition in the global economic scenario has led to the use of simulation in many areas such as manufacturing, health systems, military systems and transportation. With the importance of simulation in supporting decision making and operations, model building has been recognised as one of the crucial steps in simulation studies. However, model building is not as easy as it may seem. It can be time-consuming and expensive, and requires special training, skills and experience. This research, therefore, aims to investigate a new method to rapidly build a simulation model based on the classification of problems in assembly lines using a cladistics technique and template approach. Three objectives were established in order to achieve the aim and a four-stage research programme was developed according to these objectives. The first stage starts by developing a thorough understanding of and collecting typical problems in assembly lines. The next stage formulates the classification of problems and the main deliverable is a cladogram, a tree structure that can be used to represent the evolution of problems and their characteristics. The third stage focuses on the development of a proof-of-concept prototype based on an established classification and template approach. The prototype helps users to develop a model by providing the physical elements and specific elements required for the performance measures analysis. The prototype is then tested and validated in the final stage. The results show that the prototype developed can help to rapidly build a simulation model and reduce model development time.

Com aproximadamente 800 espécies descritas, Chelodesmidae constitui a segunda maior família em Polydesmida; seus membros ocorrem na América do Sul (subfamília Chelodesminae) e oeste Africano (subfamília Prepodesminae). Hoffman, ao examinar e ilustrar inúmeros caracteres em seu extensivo trabalho com a família, propôs numerosas tribos, a maioria em Chelodesminae. Empregando o uso de caracteres morfológicos, a monofilia e a relação de 18, das 19 tribos de Chelodesminae, são testadas. Duas matrizes de dados contendo 68 terminais e 70 caracteres e 68 terminais e 65 caracteres foram construídas. Para as análises, foi utilizada pesagem implícita de caracteres am ambas as matrizes de caracteres com valores de concavidade igual a 10,23926 e 15,136, resultando em uma árvore cada. A primeira de 411 passos (IC=21; IR=66) e a segunda de 401 passos (IC=22; IR=65). No atual conjunto de dados, a maioria das tribos propostas é monofilética; exceções são Batodesmini, Leptodesmini, Macrocoxodesmini, Strongylomorphini e Telonychopodini. A tribo monoespecífica Gonorygmatini surge interna a Telonychopodini. A polifilia de Macrocoxodesmini é confirmada. Ambas as árvores de pesagem implícita mostram Chelodesminae monofilética. Assim, a subfamília é composta por, além dos grupos parafiléticos e polifiléticos, pelas tribos monofiléticas: Arthrosolaenomeridini, Caraibodesmini, Chelodesmini, Chondrodesmini, Cornalatini, Dibolostethini, Gonorygmatini, Lepturodesmini, Platinodesmini, Priodesmini, Trichomorphini e Trachelodesmini. Todas são restritas à América do Sul e América Central, bem como as ilhas do Caribe / With close to 800 described species, the Chelodesmidae constitute the second largest family in Polydesmida; its members occurring in South America (subfamily Chelodesminae) and western Africa (subfamily Prepodesminae). Hoffman, examining and illustrating numerous characters in his extensive work on the family, proposed numerous tribes, mainly in the Chelodesminae. Employing morphological characters, the monophyly and the interelationship of the 18 chelodesmine tribes are tested. Two data matrixes were built, one with 68 terminals and 70, and another with 68 terminals and 65 characters. For the analysis, implied weighting was used in both data matrixes with k values as 10,23926 and 15,136, resulting in one tree each. The first with 411 steps (CI=21; RI=66) and the second with 401 steps (CI=22; RI=65). In this dataset, the majority of tribes are monophyletic; exceptions are Batodesmini, Leptodesmini, Macrocoxodesmini, Strongylomorphini e Telonychopodini. The mono-specific tribe Gonorygmatini appears internally to Telonychopodini. The polyphyly of Macrocoxodesmini is confirmed. Both implied weighting trees shows Chelodesminae as monophyletic. This way, the subfamily is composed by, despite the paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups, for the monophyletic tribes: Arthrosolaenomeridini, Caraibodesmini, Chelodesmini, Chondrodesmini, Cornalatini, Dibolostethini, Gonorygmatini, Lepturodesmini, Platinodesmini, Priodesmini, Trichomorphini e Trachelodesmini. All tribes are restrict to South and Central Americas, as well to Caribbean Islands

Os Ditomyiidae, incluídos por alguns autores na família Mycetophilidae s.l. como uma subfamília, compõem um pequeno clado da infraordem Bibionomorpha, alocado dentro dos Mycetophiliformia.Este último grupo está relativamente bem representado no registro fossilífero do Jurássico, enquanto que os ditomídeos possuem o seu registro mais antigo datado do Eoceno, há 52 milhões de anos. Dentro dos Mycetophiliformia, os Ditomyiidae, segundo topologias recentes, formam um grupo monofilético com Bolitophilidae, Diadocidiidae e Keroplatidae. No momento, 15 gêneros são aceitos para a família, com cerca de 107 espécies descritas para todo o mundo, exceto para a região Afrotropical. Dentre esses gêneros, Melosymmerus Munroe apresenta distribuição exclusivamente neotropical, o qual, juntamente com Calosymmerus Munroe, tem como grupo-irmão Australosymmerus Freeman, de distribuição circum-antártica. Esse grupo de gêneros tem como grupo-irmão Symmerus Walker, de distribuição holártica, compondo os Symmerinae. Esse é um padrão bastante característico de grupos fragmentados pelo processo de tectônica de placas, gerando disjunção intercontinental por vicariância. Em Ditomyiinae, estão incluídos os gêneros Ditomyia,Asioditomyia, Nervijuncta, Rhipidita e Calliceratomyia, que apresentam o mesmo padrão de distribuição no mundo. Há dez espécies recentes descritas para Melosymmerus sete do Brasil, uma do Equador e duas do México. Oito novas espécies de Melosymmerus são descritas neste trabalho, obtidas através de coletas com armadilha Malaise ao longo da Floresta Atlântica. As espécies brasileiras são redescritas, uma chave para o gênero confeccionada e um catálogo organizado. Além das espécies novas, foram identificados espécimes de M. bororo em Salesópolis e Ribeirão Preto,no Estado de São Paulo, e de M. bisetosus nos Estados do Paraná e Minas Gerais, ampliando a distribuição conhecida dessas espécies. Em uma análise das relações filogenéticas entre as espécies do gênero, foi obtido o consenso estrito de nove cladogramas mais parcimoniosos. Diferentemente do proposto na literatura, em que Calosymmerus aparece como grupo-irmão de Melosymmerus, na análise realizada Melosymmerus é parafilético em relação a Calosymmerus. Isso sugere que Calosymmerus possa ser incluído como um sinônimo júnior subjetivo de Melosymmerus. / Ditomyiidae, included by some authors in the family Mycetophilidae s.l. as a subfamily, is a small clade of the infraorder Bibionomorpha, placed within the Mycetophiliformia. Mycetophiliformia is relatively well represented in the fossil record of the Jurassic (144 million years ago), while the oldest record of ditomids is from the Eocene (52 million years ago). According to recent topologies, the Ditomyiidae form a monophyletic group with Bolitophilidae, Diadocidiidae and Keroplatidae.Fifteen genera are now accepted for the family, with about 107 species described for the world, except for Afrotropical region. Among those genera, Melosymmerus Munroe has an exclusively neotropical distribution, which, together with Calosymmerus Munroe, is genera sister to Australosymmerus Freeman, which has circum-antarctic distribution. The above mentioned have Symmerus Walker as sister-group, of holartic distribution, composing the Symmerinae. This is quite characteristic of groups fragmented by the process of tectonics of plates, generating intercontinental disjunction by vicariance. The Ditomyiinae include the following genera: Ditomyia, Asioditomyia, Nervijuncta, Rhipidita and Calliceratomyia, with a similar distribution in the world. There are ten described species for Melosymmerus seven of Brazil, one of Ecuador and two of Mexico. Eight new species of Melosymmerus are described in this work for the Neotropical region, collected with Malaise traps along the Atlantic Forest. Brazilian species are redescribed, a key for species of the genus handled and a catalog organized. Specimens of M. bororo were identified from Salesópolis and Ribeirão Preto, in the state of São Paulo, as well as specimens of M. bisetosus, in the states of Paraná and Minas Gerais. In a phylogenetic analysis of the relationships among the species of the genus, a strict consensus of nine cladograms more parciomonious is obtained. In the literature, Melosymmerus is accepted to be sister of Calosymmerus. In this analysis, Melosymmerus appeared paraphyletic in relation to Calosymmerus, suggesting that Calosymmerus can be considered a subjective junior synonym of Melosymmerus.

The Laurentian trilobite genus Clelandia Cossmann, 1902, is represented by 12 named species that range from the late Cambrian to Early Ordovician. Species of Clelandia have been described from many localities in the United States, Canada, Scotland, and Greenland and attempts have been made to employ them as tools in biostratigraphic correlation. Nevertheless, important questions persist regarding the taxonomy and phylogeny of the group. No species-level phylogenetic analysis has been attempted for the genus and its family affinity has been unclear. Previous work often has produced limited numbers of small photographs which tend to mask subtle, but critical, morphological details and confuse taxonomic identification. New collections from the Great Basin of the western United States have resulted in material representing five new species of Clelandia, three of which are formally named. Other species of Clelandia are illustrated and the type species is redescribed. C. aspina and C. bispina are reported from a new locality in east-central Nevada. The first articulated specimens from a species of Clelandia are illustrated and demonstrate multiple synapomorphies of the thorax and pygidium that strongly indicate a unique, low-diversity clade of trilobites which persisted from the late Cambrian into the Early Ordovician with similarities to the Kingstoniidae. Phylogenetic analysis shows Clelandia to contain two distinct components. One component is characterized by species with glabellar furrows, widely flared posterior projections, and exsagittal pits of the occipital furrow. A more derived component consists of species with long glabellar spines, relatively narrow posterior fixigenae, bacculae, and a unique glabellar-occipital spine structure.

The family Syrphidae (Diptera) has around 6000 species worldwide, including many species commonly seen hovering over flowers where they feed and seek possible mates. Many of the genera mimic bees or wasps, thus sharing a similar habitus, and their identification can prove difficult without a proper identification key. To aid in the identification of Syrphidae, the first chapter of the thesis presents an online interactive photographic key to the nearctic genera of Syrphidae, richly illustrated with field and laboratory images. One of the most speciose genera of the family is Ocyptamus Macquart, 1834, with around 300 species described. Recent studies suggest that Ocyptamus is paraphyletic with regards to the genera Eosalpingogaster Hull, 1949 and Toxomerus Macquart, 1855. The second chapter addresses this paraphyly through a phylogenetic analysis, based on morphological and molecular data, of 63 species currently or previously placed in the genus Ocyptamus. A monophyletic Ocyptamus was defined on the basis of cladistic principles, six new genera (Fragosa, Hypocritanus, Maiana, Nuntianus, Relictanum and Victoriana) were proposed and 10 names (Atylobaccha, Calostigma, Hermesomyia, Hybobathus, Mimocalla, Orphnabaccha, Pelecinobaccha, Pipunculosyrphus, Pseudoscaeva and Styxia) were ressurected. The third chapter considers the clade made up of Pelecinobaccha, Relictanum and Atylobaccha, revising the genera Pelecinobaccha and Relictanum, including 24 new species, 28 synonimized names, an identification key and distribution maps.

Os Ditomyiidae, incluídos por alguns autores na família Mycetophilidae s.l. como uma subfamília, compõem um pequeno clado da infraordem Bibionomorpha, alocado dentro dos Mycetophiliformia.Este último grupo está relativamente bem representado no registro fossilífero do Jurássico, enquanto que os ditomídeos possuem o seu registro mais antigo datado do Eoceno, há 52 milhões de anos. Dentro dos Mycetophiliformia, os Ditomyiidae, segundo topologias recentes, formam um grupo monofilético com Bolitophilidae, Diadocidiidae e Keroplatidae. No momento, 15 gêneros são aceitos para a família, com cerca de 107 espécies descritas para todo o mundo, exceto para a região Afrotropical. Dentre esses gêneros, Melosymmerus Munroe apresenta distribuição exclusivamente neotropical, o qual, juntamente com Calosymmerus Munroe, tem como grupo-irmão Australosymmerus Freeman, de distribuição circum-antártica. Esse grupo de gêneros tem como grupo-irmão Symmerus Walker, de distribuição holártica, compondo os Symmerinae. Esse é um padrão bastante característico de grupos fragmentados pelo processo de tectônica de placas, gerando disjunção intercontinental por vicariância. Em Ditomyiinae, estão incluídos os gêneros Ditomyia,Asioditomyia, Nervijuncta, Rhipidita e Calliceratomyia, que apresentam o mesmo padrão de distribuição no mundo. Há dez espécies recentes descritas para Melosymmerus sete do Brasil, uma do Equador e duas do México. Oito novas espécies de Melosymmerus são descritas neste trabalho, obtidas através de coletas com armadilha Malaise ao longo da Floresta Atlântica. As espécies brasileiras são redescritas, uma chave para o gênero confeccionada e um catálogo organizado. Além das espécies novas, foram identificados espécimes de M. bororo em Salesópolis e Ribeirão Preto,no Estado de São Paulo, e de M. bisetosus nos Estados do Paraná e Minas Gerais, ampliando a distribuição conhecida dessas espécies. Em uma análise das relações filogenéticas entre as espécies do gênero, foi obtido o consenso estrito de nove cladogramas mais parcimoniosos. Diferentemente do proposto na literatura, em que Calosymmerus aparece como grupo-irmão de Melosymmerus, na análise realizada Melosymmerus é parafilético em relação a Calosymmerus. Isso sugere que Calosymmerus possa ser incluído como um sinônimo júnior subjetivo de Melosymmerus. / Ditomyiidae, included by some authors in the family Mycetophilidae s.l. as a subfamily, is a small clade of the infraorder Bibionomorpha, placed within the Mycetophiliformia. Mycetophiliformia is relatively well represented in the fossil record of the Jurassic (144 million years ago), while the oldest record of ditomids is from the Eocene (52 million years ago). According to recent topologies, the Ditomyiidae form a monophyletic group with Bolitophilidae, Diadocidiidae and Keroplatidae.Fifteen genera are now accepted for the family, with about 107 species described for the world, except for Afrotropical region. Among those genera, Melosymmerus Munroe has an exclusively neotropical distribution, which, together with Calosymmerus Munroe, is genera sister to Australosymmerus Freeman, which has circum-antarctic distribution. The above mentioned have Symmerus Walker as sister-group, of holartic distribution, composing the Symmerinae. This is quite characteristic of groups fragmented by the process of tectonics of plates, generating intercontinental disjunction by vicariance. The Ditomyiinae include the following genera: Ditomyia, Asioditomyia, Nervijuncta, Rhipidita and Calliceratomyia, with a similar distribution in the world. There are ten described species for Melosymmerus seven of Brazil, one of Ecuador and two of Mexico. Eight new species of Melosymmerus are described in this work for the Neotropical region, collected with Malaise traps along the Atlantic Forest. Brazilian species are redescribed, a key for species of the genus handled and a catalog organized. Specimens of M. bororo were identified from Salesópolis and Ribeirão Preto, in the state of São Paulo, as well as specimens of M. bisetosus, in the states of Paraná and Minas Gerais. In a phylogenetic analysis of the relationships among the species of the genus, a strict consensus of nine cladograms more parciomonious is obtained. In the literature, Melosymmerus is accepted to be sister of Calosymmerus. In this analysis, Melosymmerus appeared paraphyletic in relation to Calosymmerus, suggesting that Calosymmerus can be considered a subjective junior synonym of Melosymmerus.