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Investigation on second-position clitic phenomena has steadily increased since Wackernagel’s (1892) observations. Researchers have applied contemporary clitic typology to various Semitic languages though Syriac has received little attention. This thesis identifies a group of Syriac rhetorical particles and describes their categorization as clitics, versus words or affixes. It establishes each of the Syriac particles as second-position clitics and provides evidence of this conclusion from a state-of-the-art digitized corpus of Syriac literature. Extending previous Syriac analyses, this thesis describes the nature of attachment of these second-position clitics as enclisis to either the first word or the first constituent/phrase of their domain. This variable clitic attachment behavior has been previously attested only in three other unrelated languages: Serbo-Croatian, Luiseño and Ngiyambaa. I discuss the analysis and application of these discoveries and their implications for future Syriac and linguistic research.

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This study focuses on the clitic pronoun usage by Spanish-Quechua bilingual speakers in Cuzco, Peru when faced with a question that includes a definite article preceding the direct object. Answers are analyzed to determine whether or not the definite article has an effect on the presence or absence of the clitic pronoun. Direct objects tested were both [+human] and [-human] objects to determine if these variables affect clitic pronoun use as well. Speakers who have identified themselves as bilingual in both Spanish and Quechua were given a survey to complete in order to see what factors may contribute to the use or omission of the clitic pronouns.

The present dissertation deals with one of the speech synthesizer components – automatic stressing of a text and two other goals relating to it – homographs (words that can be stressed in several ways) disambiguation and a search for clitics (unstressed words). The method, which by means of decision trees finds sequences of letters that unambiguously define the word stressing, was applied to stress a Lithuanian text. Decision trees were created using large corpus of stressed words. Stressing rules based on sequences of letters at the beginning, ending and in the middle of a word have been formulated. The algorithm proposed reaches the accuracy of about 95.5%. The homograph disambiguation algorithm proposed by the present author is based on frequencies of lexemes and morphological features, that were obtained from corpus containing about one million words. Such methods were not used for Lithuanian language so far. The proposed algorithm enables to select the correct variant of stressing within the accuracy of 85.01%. Besides the author proposes methods of four types to search for the clitics in a Lithuanian text: methods based on recognising the combinational forms, based on statistical stressed/unstressed frequency of a word, grammar rules and stressing of the adjacent words. It is explained how to unite all the methods into a single algorithm. 4.1% of errors was obtained for the testing data among all the words, and the ratio of errors and unstressed words accounts for 18... [to full text] / Disertacijoje nagrinėjama viena iš kalbos sintezatoriaus sudedamųjų dalių – teksto automatinis kirčiavimas, bei su kirčiavimu susiję kiti uždaviniai: vienodai rašomų, bet skirtingai tariamų, žodžių (homografų) vienareikšminimas bei prie gretimo žodžio prišlijusių bekirčių žodžių (klitikų) paieška. Teksto kirčiavimui pritaikytas metodas, kuris naudodamas sprendimų medžius randa raidžių sekas, vienareikšmiai nusakančias žodžio kirčiavimą. Sprendimo medžiams sudaryti buvo naudojamas didelies apimties sukirčiuotų žodžių tekstynas. Buvo sudarytos kirčiavimo taisyklės remiantis raidžių sekomis žodžių pradžioje, pabaigoje ir viduryje. Pasiūlytas kirčiavimo algoritmas pasiekia apie 95,5% tikslumą. Homografams vienareikšminti pritaikyti iki šiol lietuvių kalbai nenaudoti metodai, pagrįsti leksemų ir morfologinių pažymų vartosenos dažniais, gautais iš vieno milijono žodžių tekstyno. Darbe parodyta, kad morfologinių pažymų dažniai yra svarbesni už leksemų dažnius. Pasiūlyti metodai leido homografus vienareikšminti 85,01% tikslumu. Klitikų paieškai pasiūlyti metodai, kurie remiasi: 1) samplaikinių formų atpažinimu, 2) statistiniu žodžio kirčiavimo/nekirčiavimo dažniu, 3) kai kuriomis gramatikos taisyklėmis bei 4) gretimų žodžių kirčių pasiskirstymu (ritmika). Paaiškinta, kaip visus metodus sujungti į vieną algoritmą. Pritaikius šį algoritmą testavimo duomenims, klaidų ir visų žodžių santykis buvo 4,1%, o klaidų ir nekirčiuotų žodžių santykis – 18,8%.

Disertacijoje nagrinėjama viena iš kalbos sintezatoriaus sudedamųjų dalių – teksto automatinis kirčiavimas, bei su kirčiavimu susiję kiti uždaviniai: vienodai rašomų, bet skirtingai tariamų, žodžių (homografų) vienareikšminimas bei prie gretimo žodžio prišlijusių bekirčių žodžių (klitikų) paieška. Teksto kirčiavimui pritaikytas metodas, kuris naudodamas sprendimų medžius randa raidžių sekas, vienareikšmiai nusakančias žodžio kirčiavimą. Sprendimo medžiams sudaryti buvo naudojamas didelies apimties sukirčiuotų žodžių tekstynas. Buvo sudarytos kirčiavimo taisyklės remiantis raidžių sekomis žodžių pradžioje, pabaigoje ir viduryje. Pasiūlytas kirčiavimo algoritmas pasiekia apie 95,5% tikslumą. Homografams vienareikšminti pritaikyti iki šiol lietuvių kalbai nenaudoti metodai, pagrįsti leksemų ir morfologinių pažymų vartosenos dažniais, gautais iš vieno milijono žodžių tekstyno. Darbe parodyta, kad morfologinių pažymų dažniai yra svarbesni už leksemų dažnius. Pasiūlyti metodai leido homografus vienareikšminti 85,01% tikslumu. Klitikų paieškai pasiūlyti metodai, kurie remiasi: 1) samplaikinių formų atpažinimu, 2) statistiniu žodžio kirčiavimo/nekirčiavimo dažniu, 3) kai kuriomis gramatikos taisyklėmis bei 4) gretimų žodžių kirčių pasiskirstymu (ritmika). Paaiškinta, kaip visus metodus sujungti į vieną algoritmą. Pritaikius šį algoritmą testavimo duomenims, klaidų ir visų žodžių santykis buvo 4,1%, o klaidų ir nekirčiuotų žodžių santykis – 18,8%. / The present dissertation deals with one of the speech synthesizer components – automatic stressing of a text and two other goals relating to it – homographs (words that can be stressed in several ways) disambiguation and a search for clitics (unstressed words). The method, which by means of decision trees finds sequences of letters that unambiguously define the word stressing, was applied to stress a Lithuanian text. Decision trees were created using large corpus of stressed words. Stressing rules based on sequences of letters at the beginning, ending and in the middle of a word have been formulated. The algorithm proposed reaches the accuracy of about 95.5%. The homograph disambiguation algorithm proposed by the present author is based on frequencies of lexemes and morphological features, that were obtained from corpus containing about one million words. Such methods were not used for Lithuanian language so far. The proposed algorithm enables to select the correct variant of stressing within the accuracy of 85.01%. Besides the author proposes methods of four types to search for the clitics in a Lithuanian text: methods based on recognising the combinational forms, based on statistical stressed/unstressed frequency of a word, grammar rules and stressing of the adjacent words. It is explained how to unite all the methods into a single algorithm. 4.1% of errors was obtained for the testing data among all the words, and the ratio of errors and unstressed words accounts for 18.8%... [to full text]

The study of clitic clusters and the restrictions that surface when two or more clitics are combined have long intrigued linguists and, as such, clitic phenomena are at the core of an ever-growing body of research in linguistic theory. However, three aspects remain largely unexplored when it comes to clitic cluster constraints, namely the evolution of these restrictions through time, the perception and processing of different clitic combinations, both acceptable and unacceptable, by native speakers and the acquisition of such combinations by non-native speakers. This dissertation, which focuses on 1st and 2nd person clitic clusters in Spanish, aims to shed new light on clitic phenomena with a new analysis and new data from all these perspectives. Specifically, I study the effects that case and marked features have on Spanish clitic combinations, both synchronically and diachronically. In addition, I explore the effects of clitic combination restrictions in language processing and analyze the learnability issues derived from such restrictions in three groups of speakers of Spanish as a second language whose L1s are English, French and Romanian, respectively. At a particular level, this dissertation is a study of clitic cluster constraints from different perspectives, both traditional and new, namely linguistic theory, diachrony, language processing and language acquisition. At a general level, it constitutes an attempt to explore the ways in which linguistic theory can guide applied research and, conversely, the ways in which experimental data may contribute to linguistic theory.

The main topic of the thesis is a discussion of the contraction of esse (-st < est , -'s < -es), a widespread phenomenon in Latin comedy, generally known as ‘prodelision’. The thesis collects evidence for contracted forms from a large variety of sources (e.g. inscriptions, Sabellian languages and ancient grammarians) and analyses their transmission in the manuscript tradition of Latin authors. Contracted forms appear to be widespread but are neglected by or puzzling to editors. They are not misspellings, abbreviations, or representations of a sandhi phenomenon related to elision (‘prodelision’), but are clitic forms of the verb esse, showing phonetic reduction. The thesis discusses their linguistic significance, relying in particular on analysis of their behaviour in Terence: auxiliary or copula esse is clitic and its standard position seems to be clause-final, attached to the participle or predicate noun or adjective. Second, the thesis analyses another complex phenomenon of early Latin, the prosodical omission of final -s before a consonant (sigmatic ecthlipsis), relying on a database of all Terence's lines potentially involving it. Metrical evidence appears to be limited to cases in which a participle or predicate noun or adjective precedes a form of esse beginning with s-, thus confirming the prosodical distinctiveness of such a sequence. The evidence of sigmatic ecthlipsis thus ties in closely with that of contraction. The findings of the thesis have philological and editorial implications. First, they throw light on orthographic, phonetic, prosodic, and syntactic aspects of the verb ‘to be’ in Latin. It has a strong bond with the participle and predicate noun or adjective and may either be reduced phonetically in combination with such hosts, or participate in a simplification of -ss- which it may share with its host. Second, transmitted contracted spellings or readings betraying a misunderstanding of them should be given full consideration by editors and not disregarded. Contracted spellings might be restored in other conditions since manuscripts are often not trustworthy when transmitting uncontracted forms. Contracted forms may be stylistically motivated. They occur in comedy particularly in spoken metres, and in late Latin become a spelling archaism. Finally, sigmatic ecthlipsis in Terence occurs for certain only in restricted conditions: the editorial practice of printing it wherever it is possible even if not necessary is misleading.

A investigação interdisciplinar proposta neste trabalho envolve uma análise linguística e social das práticas jesuíticas após a restauração da Companhia de Jesus quando a Igreja Católica passou a produzir uma memória apologética da ação da Ordem, reverberando uma ideologia civilizatória cujo personagem principal é o Pe. José de Anchieta. No século XIX, a Companhia retomou seu projeto pedagógico, investindo na criação de seminários e colégios, entre os quais se destaca o Colégio São Luís, fundado em Itu, cujos religiosos, responsáveis pela educação de setores católicos das elites paulistas, protagonizaram a oposição ao crescente laicismo republicano e ao Protestantismo que começava a se expandir na região devido à imigração norteamericana. Os discursos e panegíricos pronunciados na primeira década do século XX por ocasião das festividades do Colégio captam a voz jesuítica e um conjunto de representações de valores religiosos que, ao lado dos textos de jornais, articulam as ideias e polêmicas que circulavam naquele momento. Como objeto de estudo, destacamos a repetição de estruturas linguísticas, assumindo a hipótese de que há uma relação entre repetição de estruturas e reiteração de tópicas. Destacamos ainda a questão da colocação pronominal, verificando se a padronização linguística adotada pelo grupo segue o modelo do Português Europeu ou se atende o modelo brasileiro de português culto. Nesse sentido, este trabalho procurará evidenciar: Qual o imaginário jesuítico que se pretendia fixar para os ouvintes? Que bens culturais, sociais e simbólicos os jesuítas procuravam transmitir pela via educacional, com a criação do Colégio São Luís, voltado para os filhos da elite ituense? Quais meios linguísticos foram utilizados para a transmissão desses bens? / This interdisciplinary research aims to investigate the linguistics and social practices of the Jesuits after the restoration when the congregation produced an apologetic memory of their actions, reverberating a civilizing ideology whose main character is Fr. José de Anchieta. In the nineteenth century, the Society of Jesus resumed its pedagogical project, investing in the foundation of Seminaries and Schools, among which stands out the São Luís School, founded in Itu. The Jesuits were responsible for the education of Catholic sectors of the São Paulo elites, in the context of growing secularism and Protestantism that came with the North American immigrants. The Graduation Speeches and Panegyrics pronounced in the early years of the twentieth century by occasion of the School festivities capture the \"Jesuitical voice\" and other set of religious values representations that, in articulation with the Newspaper Texts, show the controversial ideas circulating at that time. This research highlights as a literary device, the repetition of structures, inferring the connection between repeating structures and topic reiteration. It also highlights the clitic position, in order to understand whether the model used is the Brazilian Portuguese or the European Portuguese. In this sense, this research will seek to answer the questions: What is the Jesuit imaginary spread for the audience? What are the cultural, social and symbolic assets transferred in their texts? What are the linguistic tools used to convey their ideas?