Necrotic enteritis (NE) caused by Clostridium perfringens type A is an important bacterial enteric disease of global broiler production. However, the dynamic interactions of NE and its predisposing factors are not fully presented by current studies. By using the System Dynamics (SD) Model, the epidemiological changes in susceptible-infected-removed models of NE and avian coccidiosis and their interactions in one or multiple grow-out cycles was established; meanwhile, the growth performance was measured by the average weights of infected and non-infected populations at harvest were estimated. The SD model provided direct and persuasive outcomes of the epidemiology and ecology of NE compared with models using statistical methodology. With interventions on certain predisposing factors of management practices and medication, effects which decreased disease incidence and growth performance were observed; moreover, the leverage points obtained from interventions on certain management practices provided quantitative results which were applicable and useful for improving the broiler production.

The overall purpose of this thesis is to understand the impact of management on commercial egg layers, whether that be environmental-related, health-related, or other possible stressors within the pullet and post-peak phases. Furthermore, the study seeks to examine what effects to performance and production these impacts may induce within a commercial layer in differing phases, specifically the pullet and post-peak phases. Chapter two explores into coccidiosis within the pullet phase, which induced by a commercial vaccine, can provide stress to a pullet, lowering protection against infection, and seriously compromising its growth and development into peak lay. Chapter three explores into the post-peak phase, a transition from a caged system of production to cage-free system of production was selected. incorporating multiple differing environmental stimuli that can induce stress. If commercial layers prove to possess the capabilities to adapt to these impacts in multiple phases, the possibility of extended production is possible.

Ruminant livestock play a vital role in fulfilling the nutrient requirements of humans by providing protein, energy, and essential microminerals. With the increasing demand for meat and dairy products, the ruminant industry must continue to improve the productivity and efficiency of ruminant animals with limited resources while minimizing the environmental impact. Rumen fermentation is the focal point of the productivity and efficiency of the animal and numerous chemical, physical and biochemical interactions make the rumen a complex ecosystem. Therefore, improving the understanding of fermentation dynamics in a holistic manner and characterizing how fermentation varies in response to different nutrient supplies can greatly expand our knowledge on rumen fermentation to develop better engineered rumen manipulation strategies. The central aim of these investigations was to employ alternative analytical strategies for holistic exploration of complex relationships among rumen, animal, and dietary variables and to estimate rumen volatile fatty acid (VFA) dynamics under different nutrient supplies. The objective of the first study was to explore the strengths and limitations of mixed-model meta-analysis, recursive feature elimination (RFE), and additive Bayesian networking (ABN) in identifying relationships among diet, rumen, and milk performance variables. Both mixed-models and ABN agreed upon most of the variables and relationships identified while RFE failed to capture interactions. Given the capacity of mixed models for quantitative inquiry and the potential of ABN to illustrate complex associations in a more intuitive way, future investigations combining both approaches hold potential to explore intercorrelated data in a holistic manner. Followed by the successful use of ABN in the first study, the goal of a follow up study was to investigate the potential of two different network approaches to explore rumen level interactions using data generated in continuous culture experiments. Two network analysis approaches, EBIC-LASSO network (ELN) and Bayesian learning network (BLN) were leveraged to explore the relationships among rumen fermentation parameters in continuous culture experiments. Unidirectional ELN illustrated prominent variables while BLN, which produces a directed acyclic graph, identified directional relationships implying causality. Overall, both networking approaches demonstrate strengths in capturing connectedness and directionality of rumen fermentation variables. In a complementary line of work, the next experiment focused on developing an alternative method for iso-tope based assessments to produce less expensive, and more efficient screening of fermentation conditions driven by diet. Cannulated wethers were used in this study and 4 dietary treatments combining lowly and highly degradable fiber (timothy hay and beet pulp, respectively) and protein (heat-treated soybean meal and soybean meal, respectively) were tested. Results indicated that fluid volume of the rumen and the rate of passage were influenced by protein, but not fiber, source. Higher rumen volumes and lower passage rates were associated with heat-treated soybean meals. The effect of dietary treatments on VFA absorption dynamics was prominent compared to the minimal changes in production dynamics. Overall, heat-treated soybean meal appears to influence VFA disappearance resulting in low concentrations within the rumen, but greater flux of VFA disappearance. In conclusion, this method demonstrated the capacity to estimate VFA dynamics beyond concentrations and molar proportions while being cost effective and more physiologically relevant. In a fourth study, we sought to investigate the growth performance and rumen VFA profile in response to different planes of nutrients and naturally occurring coccidiosis. Coccidiosis infection altered rumen isobutyrate concentrations and tended to alter major VFA concentrations suggesting the need of future work to explore coccidiosis effects on rumen fermentation. The first two investigations highlighted the potential and strength of leveraging alternative analytical tools to complement statistical approaches generally used in ruminant nutrition while concurrently improving ability to explain complex associations in the rumen. The third and fourth projects characterized the rumen VFA dynamics and profile in response to the different nutrient degradability and health status, respectively. Collectively, these investigations contribute to better understanding of rumen dynamics through novel analytical and experimental approaches. / Doctor of Philosophy / With increasing global population, income, urbanization, and changes in dietary habits, the demand for meat and milk continues to grow. The ruminant animal industries (beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, goat, and buffalo) carry the burden of increasing production utilizing limited resources while minimizing the negative environmental impact caused by ruminant operations. To achieve this goal the productivity of the animal must be increased, and in order to increase the efficiency of production a better understanding of factors driving the production is critical. Ruminant animals have the unique ability to convert plant fiber into human edible milk and meat through a process that predominantly occurs in the special gut compartment called the rumen. In this process several compounds are produced, and among those volatile fatty acid (VFA) is of utmost importance because it fulfills energy demands for growth, production and reproduction. The rumen is a complex ecosystem consisting of numerous variables and associations. Understanding those relationships is crucial to manipulate rumen mechanisms. The overall objective of this work was to evaluate the potential of alternative statistical approaches, which demonstrated success in other disciplines, for better depiction of complex associations and characterization of production and absorption mechanisms of rumen VFA in response to different nutrient supplies. The objective of first investigation was to evaluate a feature selection method (recursive feature elimination; RFE) and a network approach (Additive Bayesian network; ABN) concurrently with a standard variable selection method (mixed model meta-analysis) commonly used to develop animal nutrition models. We attempted to find out the most important dietary, rumen, and animal variables for milk yield, milk fat and protein content as an example. Results indicate that the network approach was well aligned with the standard tool and can be used as a complementary approach. In our second investigation, we leveraged two networking analyses, a frequentist network which was unidirectional and a Bayesian network which was directional to explore rumen level interactions. The unidirectional network approach highlighted the most important variables in the rumen and numerous relationships among these variables. The directional network was more useful in understanding of causal associations within the system. In the third experiment we estimated the production and absorption of VFA in response to the different protein (heat-treated and regular soybean meal) and fiber (timothy hay and beet pulp) sources. The results revealed that the production of VFA was minimally affected by the diet, but the absorption was higher with heat-treated soybean meal. Our last project investigated the effect of parasitic infection, i.e., coccidiosis, and high and low levels of nutrition on growth and rumen VFA of growing lambs. Infection of coccidiosis altered a minor VFA (isobutyrate) and tended to alter total and major VFA (acetate and propionate). All these findings help to improve our understanding of rumen fermentation and subsequently develop strategies to manipulate rumen fermentation to enhance efficiency and productivity.

No description available.

No description available.

Immediately post-hatch, broiler chicks are exposed to microbes that begin colonizing the gut, including environmental pathogens. One of the costliest enteric diseases in broiler production is necrotic enteritis (NE), caused by the ubiquitous opportunistic bacteria Clostridium perfringens (CP). With the worldwide reduction in antibiotic growth-promoters (AGPs), there is increased interest in natural alternatives to reduce disease and improve broiler health. The overall objective of the studies described herein was to apply probiotics or synbiotics to birds by in ovo application or orally before they leave the hatchery, then evaluate bird performance and various intestinal responses. Data were analyzed in JMP with LS Means to separate means with significance assigned at P ≤ 0.05 and trends at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10. The first 21-day (D) study used 480 male Cobb 500 broilers randomly divided into one of four treatments using a 2x2 factorial design: a no-additive control (CTRL), a one-time oral application of synbiotic at the hatchery fed a basal diet (HS), an oral application of water at the hatchery with dietary synbiotics (DS), and a hatchery synbiotic plus dietary synbiotic (HSDS). Performance was measured on day-of-hatch (DOH), D3, D7, D14, and D21. mRNA abundance of various intestinal markers was measured at D7 and D21, including tight junction proteins ZO-1, ZO-2, and CLD-1; nutrient transporters SGLT1 and PepT1; and immune response markers TLR2, TLR4, and IL-10. HS lowered feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) without lowering body weight (BW) from D14-21. There was greater abundance of PepT1 mRNA (P ≤ 0.1) and IL-10 mRNA (P ≤ 0.05) on D21 in HSDS. Second, a 21-day pilot study with 480 male and female Cobb 500 broilers was conducted to determine the optimum in ovo dosage level of a probiotic or synbiotic (PROB or SYNB) applied at embryonic day 18 (E18) with subsequent NE challenge using seven treatments: in ovo application of sterile water (CTRL), low (PROB-L or SYNB-L: 1x105 CFU), medium (PROB-M or SYNB-M: 1x106 CFU), or high (PROB-H or SYNB-H: 1x107 CFU) probiotic or synbiotic doses dissolved in sterile water. Performance measurements were taken on DOH, D4, D8, D14 and D21. On D8, NE lesion scores were not impacted by treatment. D8 ileal samples were taken for mRNA abundance of TLR4, IL-10, IL-1β, AvBD8, AvBD10, and AvBD13. SYNB-H had higher abundance of AvBD10 mRNA compared to CTRL (P ≤ 0.1), and higher IL-1β mRNA compared to SYNB-L (P ≤ 0.05). PROB-H and SYNB-H had better performance than the low and medium doses, but were not better than the CTRL. The high doses were chosen for subsequent studies. Third, a longer 42-day study using 1,630 Ross 708 male and female broilers was conducted consisting of the following six treatments. A negative control (NC): sterile water in ovo fed basal corn/soybean meal mash diet without NE challenge; antibiotic growth-promoter (AGP+): sterile water in ovo fed basal diet with virginiamycin (0.5 kg/MT) as an AGP with NE challenge; NC+: same as NC plus NE challenge; SI+: synbiotic in ovo fed the basal diet and NE challenged; SD+: sterile water in ovo fed basal diet supplemented with synbiotic (0.5 kg/MT feed) and NE challenged; and SID+: synbiotic in ovo fed basal diet with synbiotic (0.5 kg/MT feed) with NE challenge. Cumulatively, SID+ had lower FI and FCR than NC+, but no change in BW or BWG. The combination treatment (SID+) often had an additive effect compared to SD+ or SI+ alone on mRNA abundance and D7 cecal fatty acid profiles. SD+ and SID+ also had higher D42 lean:fat ratios compared to NC+. Last, a 42-day study was conducted using 1,630 male and female Ross 708 broilers and the in ovo application of probiotics and subsequent NE challenge with five treatments. NC: sterile water in ovo, fed basal corn/soybean meal mash diet without NE challenge; AGP+: sterile water in ovo, fed basal diet with virginiamycin (0.5 kg/MT of feed) as AGP with NE challenge; NC+: NC treatment, with NE challenge; PI+: probiotic in ovo, fed basal diet, with NE challenge; PD+: sterile water in ovo, fed basal diet supplemented with probiotic (1.3 kg/MT of feed), with NE challenge. The use of probiotics in this study had little effect on performance, lean:fat ratios, and cecal fatty acid profiles, but PD+ increased mRNA abundance of D14 TLR2, D14 TNF-α, and D42 LEAP2 in cecal tonsils compared to controls. PI+ increased mRNA abundance of D7 and D42 MUC2, D7 LEAP2, and D42 TNF-α in the ileum. PI+ increased mRNA abundance in the cecal tonsils of D7 TLR2 and D42 TNF-α. These studies yielded interesting results about probiotics and synbiotics during a NE challenge by evaluating performance, intestinal immune responses, and fatty acid profiles in the ceca of broilers. In conclusion, the probiotic in this study did not improve broiler health during a NE challenge, but synbiotic use in ovo and continuation in the feed showed improvement over in ovo or dietary application alone. Synbiotic improved FCR over a challenged control, and altered mRNA abundance in the small intestine. / Doctor of Philosophy / The poultry industry is one of the most popular animal protein sources worldwide. As with any livestock operation, industry goals include optimizing animal health and well-being, maximizing animal productivity, and producing quality products in the most cost effective manner. Improvements in genetics, nutrition, and management have increased productivity and cut costs. One important application was the low-level use of antibiotics in feed. These medications reduced the risk of disease outbreak in flocks, which led to healthier birds and improved growth rates. However, when global concern of antibiotic resistance in human medicine came to light, both the livestock industry and governing bodies implemented voluntary and mandatory reduction or elimination of antibiotics. Previously, these important antibiotics helped to control costly diseases. As they are removed, alternatives to antibiotics will be important in disease control and prevention. A major group of alternatives to antibiotics in poultry includes probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics. Probiotic bacteria are considered 'good bacteria' in the gut, and provide various health benefits to the host. Prebiotics are non-living substances that support the growth of healthy bacteria. A synbiotic is the combination of both probiotics and prebiotics in a single application method. The goal of this research project was to give probiotics or synbiotics to broiler chicks and evaluate their potential benefits and effects on bird performance and the immune response. Ideally, applying probiotic bacteria as early as possible might translate into early colonization of the gut with healthy bacteria. This included oral application of synbiotics at the hatchery, or by safely injecting them into part of the egg that is swallowed by the chick embryo before hatch. This egg application, or in ovo application, is a safe, effective, widely-practiced method of vaccinating chicks to jumpstart their defense against disease. By vaccinating them in ovo, they can start to prime the immune system before they even hatch. Applying probiotics in ovo may improve health after early gut colonization with beneficial microbes. Numerous studies on natural alternatives to antibiotics have been conducted, with varying results. Results of this research indicate that in ovo application of probiotics and synbiotics is safe. Birds that received probiotics in the feed often performed similar to those that received none. However, the in ovo use of synbiotics combined with the continued use in the feed after hatch improved efficiency in broilers during an intestinal disease challenge and improved various aspects of gut function. Overall, as antibiotics are phased out, using probiotics and synbiotics may improve poultry health, but continued research will help understand the optimum ways to use them.

Coccidiosis is a disease caused by protozoa of the genus Eimeria ssp. These protozoa are intracellular parasites of enterocytes that rupture the host cell, causing damage to the intestinal mucosa. The lesions caused by Eimeria reduce nutrient uptake by broilers, affecting their productivity gain, and also represent a portal of entry for other enteropathogens. The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between lesions caused by Eimeria and the prevalence of coccidiosis and other gastrointestinal disorders among broilers reared in Brazil from 2012 to 2014. Intestinal health was evaluated at 82 poultry houses in Brazil, totaling 5,528 birds aged 12 to 40 days. The rearing period was divided into two phases: phase 1 (12 to 21 days) and phase 2 (22 to 40 days). The broilers, at least three per shed, were collected from three different sites. The following gastrointestinal aspects were analyzed in the present study: presence of cell desquamation, excess fluid, excess mucus, ingestion of contaminated litter, thickened intestinal walls, thin intestinal walls, movement of food bolus, abnormal intestinal tonus, Turkish towel appearance, verminosis, and necrotic enteritis. The classification of the scores for gross lesions caused by Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, and Eimeria tenella followed the method proposed by Johnson & Reid, [8] and the oocyst count of E. maxima (E. maxima micro) in the mucosa was performed under a light microscope at 100X magnification. The statistical analysis of the Pearson correlation coefficient was carried out by the SAS 9.3 software program [16], using a 95% confidence interval. The results of this study revealed that E. acervulina was the most prevalent (mean of 13.5%) species in both rearing stages. Also, there was a positive correlation with thin intestinal walls and abnormal intestinal tonus in phases 1 and 2, as well as a positive correlation with ingestion of contaminated litter in phase 2. The second highest prevalence was that of E. maxima (mean of 6.75%), with a positive correlation with excess mucus, thickened and thin intestinal walls in phase 1, and a positive correlation with cell desquamation, excess fluid, and Turkish towel appearance in phase 2. E. tenella yielded the lowest prevalence rates (mean of 4.35) among the analyzed Eimeria species, showing a positive correlation with excess fluid in phases 1 and 2 and with thickened intestinal walls and lesions caused by E. maxima in phase 2. The microscopic analysis demonstrated that E. maxima was found in 18% of mucosal scrapings in phase 1, which accounts for a subclinical coccidiosis rate of 282.98% compared with clinical coccidiosis. A positive correlation was observed for E. maxima micro between thickened intestinal walls and lesions caused by E. maxima. E. maxima was detected in mucosal scrapings of 29.6% of the broilers in phase 2, accounting for a subclinical coccidiosis rate of 236.37% compared with clinical coccidiosis. E. maxima micro revealed a positive correlation with excess fluid, necrotic enteritis, E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella in phase 2. The comparison between the rearing periods showed that subclinical coccidiosis affected 64.45% more broilers in phase 2 than in phase 1. In the gross analysis, E. acervulina was the most prevalent species in both rearing periods. A lesion score equal to 1 was the most frequent among all Eimeria species. Subclinical coccidiosis affected a significant number of broilers in the analyzed Brazilian flocks, and was correlated with several factors that reduce intestinal health. It may be concluded that monitoring is of utmost importance to find out the status of intestinal health of poultry. The microscopic detection of E. maxima (mean of 23.8%) is correlated with factors that negatively affect intestinal health. / A coccidiose é uma enfermidade causada por protozoários do gênero Eimeria ssp. Esses são parasitas intracelulares de enterócitos que rompem a célula hospedeira causando lesões na mucosa intestinal. As lesões causadas pelas Eimerias resultam em redução na capacidade de absorção de nutrientes, afetando o ganho produtivo dos frangos de corte, e representam uma porta de entrada para outros enteropatógenos. Sendo assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi analisar a correlação entre as lesões causadas pelas Eimerias, e a prevalência de coccidiose e de demais alterações encontradas no trato gastrointestinal de frangos de corte produzidos, no Brasil, no período de 2012 a 2014. As avaliações da saúde intestinal foram realizadas em 82 integrações de frangos de corte, no Brasil, totalizando 5.528 aves analisadas com idades entre 12 e 40 dias. O período de produção analisado foi dividido em duas fases: 1ª fase (12 aos 21 dias) e 2ª fase (22 aos 40 dias). Os frangos necropsiados foram coletados em três diferentes pontos e no mínimo três aves por galpão. No presente estudo foram analisadas as seguintes alterações do trato gastrintestinal: presença de descamação celular, excesso de fluido, excesso de muco, ingestão de cama, intestino espesso, intestino fino, passagem de alimento, tônus alterado, toalha turca, verminose e enterite necrótica. A definição dos escores macroscópicos de lesão causados pelas Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, Eimeria tenella seguiram a metodologia de Johnson & Reid [8], e a contagem de oocistos na mucosa para E. maxima (E. maxima micro) foi realizada com auxílio de microscópio óptico com aumento de 100 X. A análise estatística do coeficiente de correlação de Pearson foi feita com o programa SAS 9.3., com intervalo de confiança de 95%. Os resultados desse estudo demonstraram que a espécie E. acervulina foi a que apresentou maior prevalência (média de 13,5%) em ambas as fases de produção avaliadas. Ainda, referente à E. acervulina, observou-se correlação positiva com intestino fino e tônus intestinal alterado na 1ª e 2ª fase, bem como correlação positiva com ingestão de cama apenas na 2ª fase. A segunda maior prevalência foi da espécie E. maxima (média de 6,75%), obteu-se correlação positiva com excesso de muco, intestino espesso e fino na 1a fase e correlação positiva com descamação celular, excesso de fluído e toalha turca na 2a fase avaliada. A E. tenella representou a menor prevalência (média de 4,35) entre as espécies de Eimerias analisadas, apresentando uma correlação positiva na 1ª e 2ª fase com o excesso de fluído e na 2ª fase com o intestino espesso e com lesões de E. maxima. Na avaliação microscópica, a E. maxima esteve presente em 18% dos raspados de mucosa realizados na 1ª fase, o que representa uma coccidiose subclínica de 282,98% com relação a coccidiose clínica. Para a E. maxima micro foi detectada correlação positiva entre os achados com o intestino espesso e com as lesões de E. maxima. Na 2ª fase, E. maxima foi encontrada nos raspados de mucosa de 29,6% das aves, representando uma coccidiose subclínica de 236,37% com relação à coccidiose clínica. A E. maxima micro apresentou na 2ª fase uma correlação positiva com o excesso de fluido, enterite necrótica, E. acervulina, E. maxima e E. tenella. Na análise comparativa entre os períodos, a coccidiose subclínica acometeu 64,45% mais frangos de corte na 2ª fase em relação a 1ª fase. Na avaliação macroscópia de lesões relacionadas à coccidiose, a E. acervulina foi a espécie de maior prevalência em ambas fases de produção. O escore de lesão mais frequente para todas as espécies de Eimerias foi o de grau 1. A coccidiose subclínica acometeu um número expressivo de frangos de corte do plantel brasileiro e foi correlacionada com diversos fatores de diminuição de saúde intestinal. Concluiu-se que o monitoramento é de suma importância para conhecer o status de saúde intestinal dos lotes avícolas. Pois, a E. maxima microscópica está presente (média de 23,8%) com correlação aos fatores que reduzem a saúde intestinal.

Eimeria maxima é uma das principais espécies que causam a coccidiose aviária. Visando uma maior compreensão dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na esporulação de oocistos de E. maxima, o perfil da expressão gênica em oocistos não esporulados, parcialmente esporulados e esporulados foi avaliado utilizando a técnica ORESTES. As 20.149 leituras geradas foram pré-processadas, agrupadas, anotadas empregando-se a plataforma Egene e em seguida, analisadas estatisticamente. Um total de 1.207 contigs e 2091 singlets foi gerado. Cerca de 72% dos transcritos foram classificados como proteínas hipotéticas, 20% eram similares a proteínas de função conhecida e 8% eram proteínas conservadas. Após a análise estatística, 32% dos transcritos foram classificados como diferencialmente expressos, dos quais, a maioria (65%) era estágio-específica. Para validação dos perfis de expressão obtidos por ORESTES, a expressão diferencial de um pequeno conjunto de genes foi quantificada por RT-qPCR. Os resultados demonstraram boa correlação entre as duas técnicas. / Eimeria maxima is one of the most important causing agents of poultry coccidiosis. Aiming at obtaining a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in oocyst sporulation of E. maxima, the gene expression profiles of unsporulated, sporulating (sporoblast phase) and sporulated oocyst were studied using the ORESTES methodology. The 20,149 reads generated were pre-processed, grouped, annotated employing the platform Egene and statistically analyzed. A total of 1207 contigs and 2091 singlets were generated. About 72% of the transcripts were classified as hypothetical proteins, 20% were similar to proteins of known function and 8% were conserved proteins. After statistical analysis, 32% of the transcripts were classified as differentially expressed of which 65% were stage-specific. For ORESTES validation, the differential expression was quantified by RT-qPCR to a small set of genes. The results demonstrated a good correlation between the two techniques studied.

In den vorliegenden Studien wurde die Eimeria zuernii – Kokzidiose im Hinblick auf den klinischen Verlauf, die Pathophysiologie, die Pathologie und einen metaphylaktischen Behandlungsansatz charakterisiert. Hierfür wurden experimentelle Infektionen an Kälbern durchgeführt, zusätzlich wurden natürlich infizierte Tiere in die Prüfung der Wirksamkeit der Behandlung einbezogen. Die parasitologischen und pathophysiologischen Untersuchungen wurden im Infektionsmodell an insgesamt 41 Kälbern durchgeführt, die in drei Gruppen eingeteilt wurden: eine uninfizierte Kontrollgruppe 1 (n=14), die moderat infizierte Gruppe 2 (150.000 sporulierte E. zuernii – Oozysten pro Kalb, n=11) und die hochdosiert infizierte Gruppe 3 (250.000 sporulierte E. zuernii – Oozysten pro Kalb, n=16). Die Tiere wurden regelmäßig klinisch und ihre Kotproben auf Konsistenz und Parasitenaussscheidung untersucht. Es wurden regelmäßig Blutproben zur Bestimmung hämatologischer und klinisch-chemischer Parameter sowie des Säure-Basen-Status entnommen, und die Tiere wurden wöchentlich gewogen. Die Infektion mit E. zuernii löste bei allen Tieren der Gruppen 2 und 3 nach einer variablen Präpatenzdauer eine Ausscheidung von E. zuernii-Oozysten aus. Im Gegensatz zur uninfizierten Kontrollgruppe entwickelten alle infizierten Tiere Durchfall mit teils hämorrhagischem Charakter, wobei eine deutliche Korrelation zwischen der Oozystenausscheidung und dem Auftreten von Diarrhoe nachgewiesen werden konnte. Klinische Erkrankungen traten häufiger in der hochdosiert infizierten als in der moderat infizierten Gruppe auf. Hierbei standen Exsikkosen und ein vermindertes Allgemeinbefinden im Vordergrund. Ein Tier der hochinfizierten Gruppe erkrankte aufgrund der Kokzidiose infaust. Die Gewichtszunahmen waren in beiden infizierten Gruppen, bezogen auf die Kontrollgruppe 1, signifikant erniedrigt, in der hochdosiert infizierten Gruppe 3 stärker als in der moderat infizierten Gruppe 2. Die Veränderungen bei den untersuchten Blutparametern traten im Allgemeinen dosisabhängig auf. In Gruppe 3 wurden stärkere Abweichungen von den Blutwerten der Kontrollkälber beobachtet als in Gruppe 2. Initial kam es während der Patenz zu einer Leukopenie, welche anschließend in eine Leukozytose überging. Im Zuge der enteralen Blut- und Wasserverluste bildeten sich eine Hämokonzentration sowie eine Retikulozytose heraus, was als Hinweis auf eine regenerative Anämie gewertet wird. Während der Patenz fand eine Umstellung des Organismus auf einen katabolen Stoffwechsel statt, was sich in einer Lipolyse und einem gesteigerten Proteinabbau niederschlug. Außerdem kam es zu einer Störung der Homoiostase. Es lagen Elektrolytverluste über den geschädigten Darm vor, und es entwickelte sich eine respiratorisch kompensierte metabolische Azidose. Die pathologischen Untersuchungen wurden an sechs weiteren moderat infizierten Kälbern (150.000 sporulierte E. zuernii – Oozysten pro Kalb) durchgeführt. In der späten Präpatenz (16 Tage p.i.) zeigten sich nur geringe Läsionen durch die Schizogoniestadien vom kaudalen Jejunum bis zum mittleren Kolon. Zum Höhepunkt der Patenz hin (21 Tage p.i.) wiesen die beiden untersuchten Tiere akute, teils nekrotisierende Enteritiden auf, vor allem im proximalen Kolon sowie im Zäkum. Offenbar verursacht die Gamogonie, welche zu diesem Zeitpunkt vorherrscht, die stärksten Schleimhautschäden und ist damit als Auslöser der Durchfallerscheinungen zu betrachten. Gegen Ende der Patenz, am 26. Tag p.i., lagen noch entzündliche Infiltrationen der Schleimhautabschnitte vom terminalen Ileum bis zum Kolon vor, parallel fanden regenerative und hyperplastische Prozesse statt. Im Infektionsmodell und anschließend unter Feldbedingungen wurde die Effektivität einer einmaligen oralen metaphylaktischen Toltrazurilbehandlung (15 mg pro kg Körpergewicht, Baycox® 5% Suspension) etwa 14 Tage nach der Infektion getestet. Für die Prüfung unter experimentellen Bedingungen wurden 23 Kälber mit einer Dosis von 150.000 sporulierten E. zuernii – Oozysten infiziert. Die Anwendung des Toltrazurils im Feld wurde im Rahmen einer multizentrischen Studie mit fünf Studienbetrieben und insgesamt 208 Kälbern getestet. Es lagen in allen Betrieben Mischinfektionen mit den Pathogenen E. zuernii und E. bovis vor. In jedem der beiden GCP-Versuche wurde etwa die Hälfte der Tiere behandelt, während die andere Hälfte als Negativkontrolle unbehandelt blieb. Durch den Einsatz des Antikokzidiums konnten im Experiment sowie unter Feldbedingungen die Durchfalldauer und –schwere ebenso wie die Dauer und Höhe der Oozystenausscheidung im Vergleich zur unbehandelten Kontrolle signifikant gesenkt werden. Die Gewichtszunahme war in der toltrazurilbehandelten Gruppe unter experimentellen Bedingungen signifikant höher als in der Kontrollgruppe, im Feld ließ sich dieser Effekt nicht zeigen. Damit konnte die E. zuernii – Infektion im zeitlichen Verlauf und im Einfluss auf das Zielorgan Darm und den Gesamtorganismus unter den standardisierten Bedingungen einer experimentellen Infektion dargestellt werden. Es konnte eine Behandlungsmöglichkeit als hochwirksam eingestuft werden, welche durch die frühe, metaphylaktische Anwendung eines Kokzidiostatikums die zu erwartenden Darmläsionen während der späten Schizogonie und der Gamogonie unterbindet.

Coccidiosis in chicken causes great economic losses. Increasing resistance of Eimeria species to anticoccidials has forced the search for alternative methods of control. The present study evaluates the anticoccidial activity of some anti-Eimeria tenella antibody fragments expressed in pea plants. Both in vitro and in vivo infection assays including indirect immunofluorescence, in vivo evaluation of antibody neutralization and cell culture invasion-inhibition assays were used to study the inhibitory effect of these antibody fragments on E. tenella sporozoites. Seven of nine antibody fragments (Ab1, Ab4, Ab5, Ab6, Ab7, Ab8 and Ab9) showed binding to sporozoites of E. tenella in an indirect immunofluorescence test. Only two antibodies (Ab4 and Ab5) cross reacted with sporozoites of E. maxima, E. acervulina and E. brunetti. The localization of specific fluorescence differed between species. Ab binding with sporozoites was seen in the area of both anterior and posterior refractile bodies in case of E. tenella, E. brunetti, and E. maxima but was only observed in the posterior refractile body in case of E. acervulina. No antibody binding was observed on merozoites. The suitability of antibody fragments to alter the infectivity of E. tenella sporozoites to Madin Darby Bovine Kidney cells (MDBK) was examined in vitro and the invasion-inhibition rates were quantified by flow cytometry. To assess the inhibitory effect on parasite reproduction, the in vivo antibody neutralization assay was done by retrograde infection of chicken with sporozoites previously incubated with antibody fragments. In vitro invasion rates were reduced by incubation with antibody fragments by approximately 24 to 45 %, with Ab6 and Ab7 showing the most distinct effect. However, proliferation rates (PR) of the respective MDBK cultures were also clearly reduced by 15 to 26 %. PR of MDBK cells treated with 1:1000, 1:100, 1:10 and undiluted mixed antibody fragments were reduced by 1%, 10%, 16%, and 26% with a reduction of invasion rates by 0%, 9%, 15% and 18%, respectively. Immune sera reduced the invasion rates by 16% to 70% and increased PR of the host cells. It appeared that the preparations of the antibody fragments contained compounds cytotoxic to MDBK cells and thus invasion inhibition could not be unequivocally evaluated in vitro. However, after incubation with antibody fragments sporozoites displayed a reduced ability to reproduce after intracloacal application to chicken (especially Ab1, Ab3, Ab5 and Ab9). Other antibody fragments (Ab2, Ab4, Ab6, Ab7 and Ab8) were less capable to reduce sporozoite infectivity and reproduction. More investigations are still required to study the possible use of antibody fragments and their application to infected chicken exposed to coccidiosis.