M.A. / Although codeswitching as an area of sociolinguistic behaviour has become increasingly prevalent in the public and social life of a multilinguistic and multicultural South Africa, it remains an unexplored area. To many codeswitching is something impure which shows the lack of understanding of this phenomenon. Since 1993 students and lecturers at the Sohnge College of Education have been exposed to a new language contact situation between Afrikaans and English. The alternating between Afrikaans and English within the same conversation (codeswitching) is an option that has been taken in an effort to facilitate the communication process. The aim of this study is to indicate the effectiveness of codeswitching as a means of communication in the language use of lecturers at the Sohnge College of Education. A group interview had been conducted in order to establish what the lecturers' ideas and experiences of codeswitching are. Recordings of lectures, tutorials and meetings were made to ascertain when, where and why lecturers codeswitch. The data was analysed with regard to social motivations and linguistic structures. For this the models of Carol Myers- Scotton, one of the leading researchers in the field of codeswitching, were used. These are the Markedness Model (for establishing the social motivations) and the Matrix Language Frame Model (for analysing the linguistic constraints). Given the fact that this study is the first to investigate codeswitching between Afrikaans and English by using the models of Myers—Scotton, one can only hope that this first effort will cast some light on this common and yet unexplored phenomenon of codeswitching between Afrikaans and English.

In this study the role that language plays in the expression of intelligence, bilingualism, and the process of assessing selected cognitive abilities was explored. The primary purpose of the study was to determine if individuals who are allowed to move from one language to another when they provide responses to test items produce results that are different than those obtained by bilingual examinees assessed in one language only. The results indicate that the Experimental Group obtained significantly higher results than the Control Group on all the tests and subtests used. The Experimental Group code-switched more frequently and the examiners only code-switched with that group. The frequency of the code-switching behaviours explains, in great part, all the differences noted in the results as very few other sources of differences were identified, even when groups were compared on sex, first language and relative proficiency in French and in English. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

The very existence of intra-word codeswitching—of the type [w ML1 + ML2]; *[eat]eng + [-iendo]Spanish —has long been a point of contention in the language mixing literature (Poplack, 1980; Myers-Scotton, 1992; MacSwan, 2005). However, recent work by Alexiadou et al (2015) and Grimstad, Lohndal & Afarli (2014) has documented a number of empirical examples of such codeswitching in an American community of Heritage Norwegian-English speakers—crucially, in these examples, the lexical elements are English lexical roots and produced using English phonological rules but the suffix (i.e. morphology) attached to the lexical items is syntactically Norwegian—a clear and unambiguous example of intra-word codeswitching. These data will be the focus of investigation into intra-word codeswitching. MacSwan (2005) has argued that intra-word codeswitching is prohibited due to the inability of the human computational system to merge hierarchically ordered phonological systems from two or more languages; a prohibition characterized in his PF Disjunction Theorem. More recently, Alexiadou et al., (2015); Grimstad, Lohndal & Afarli, (2014) have exploited a model of Distributed Morphology to challenge the PF disjunction theorem and the ban on intra-word codeswitching it entails. A central goal of this thesis will be to compare, contrast and evaluate these two models of language mixing. It will be argued that this prohibition of intra-word language mixing may be overcome by appealing to a cognitive processes perspective (Sharwood-Smith & Truscott, 2014). A MOGUL processing prospective (Sharwood-Smith & Truscott, 2014) will be used to build upon previous approaches to language mixing in order to account for intra-word codeswitching. The modular architecture adopted by MOGUL allows for a molecular view of a lexical item; each module (i.e. phonological module, syntax module, conceptual module) produces a representation for a given form which is then interfaced to neighboring modules; the result is a chain of representations (i.e. PS + SS + CS) which constitutes a lexical item. Additionally, MOGUL incorporates several extra-linguistic cognitive mechanisms which play a role in language mixing. Of particular interest are the notions of goals and cognitive context. Following Sharwood-smith & Truscott (2016), goals are the central motivators for speech and action while cognitive context is taken to be the mentally internalized representation of an individual’s current environment (Sharwood-Smith & Truscott, 2014) as well as representing various intentions, perspectives, opinions, etc., an individual has regarding their environment (Van Dijk, 1997). To situate intra-word codeswitching into a MOGUL framework, much of MacSwan’s Minimalist account will be adopted, (i.e. codeswitching is accounted for via the union of grammar X and grammar Y; formally: {Gx ᴜ Gy}) while rejecting the PF Disjunction Theorem and, instead, adopting elements of Distributed Morphology (i.e. late insertion). It will be argued that cognitive context configures various executive control process (i.e. bilingual mode) to allow for the union of phonological systems between Lx and Ly. This analysis builds upon a larger body of language mixing research by synthesizing a Minimalist account of codeswitching with a cognitive processing framework to account for intra-word codeswitching; the MOGUL framework allows for these disparate elements to be synthesized. / Graduate

Code-switching is a language-contact phenomenon in which the juxtaposition of languages is intentional and purposeful. The Kuwaiti speech community has a distinctive code-switching mechanism because of the unique sociolinguistic and cultural setting; as they code-switch to English even though they are neither an immigrant community nor are/were colonised by an English speaking country. In Kuwait, code-switching between Kuwaiti Arabic and English is very common among the youth, even though English is considered to be a foreign language. It is observed that the code-switching behaviour of Kuwaiti bilinguals attending bilingual/multilingual schools differs from that of those attending monolingual schools. In this thesis, an ethnographic study has been conducted to corroborate this observation. Both bilingual/multilingual school students and bilingual students attending monolingual schools were interviewed in order to identify the motivations behind their code-switching behaviour. The interviews were analysed sequentially by adopting the conversational analysis framework. The sequential approach (Auer 1984) focuses on a turn-by-turn participant-oriented analysis (Li Wei 1994) to seek answers to the questions of how and why bilingual speakers code-switch. Here, the different code-switching behaviours of these young Kuwaitis were investigated in an attempt to analyse the conversational functions behind them. Without exception, bilinguals in monolingual schools preferred conversing in Kuwaiti Arabic with a few one-word English insertions here and there, even though free language choice was emphasised at the beginning of each conversation. On the other hand, the language choice of bilingual school students varied from choosing Kuwaiti Arabic or English as the language of conversation to code-switching between the two languages on a continuous basis. Code-switching ranged from English insertions into Kuwaiti Arabic speech or Kuwaiti Arabic insertions into English speech to alternating between the two languages. In addition to the different code-switching styles, various conversational functions behind code-switching were also recognised. In this thesis, code-switching was treated as a contextualisation cue (Gumperz 1982), highlighting the pragmatic functions and contributing to an understanding of the intended meaning. At least five motivations behind code-switching among bilingual school students were identified in our corpus: accommodation, repair, contrastiveness, filling linguistic gaps, and floor holding, among others.

博士（社会学） / [4], 130 p. / 一橋大学

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In this dissertation I have examined bilingual families’ attitudes towards their children’s bilingualism and code switching. My research questions are how and when the informants’ children mix between their languages and if the parents have positive or negative attitudes towards their children’s language mixture. I have also asked what the bilingual families feel about bilingualism. As a method I have chosen to make qualitative interviews with my informants. Three families have been interviewed with different languages and backgrounds. The results indicate that bilingualism confers an increased interest for language and increased language awareness. Some of the informants state that their children often switch between the languages while others do not mix at all. The informants have a very positive attitude towards bilingualism and they do not see a problem in their children’s code switchingMother tongue, code switching, consecutive and sequential bilingualism, majority and minority language

This study presents findings obtained from 280 fourth year high school students in Ormoc City, Philippines concerning their attitude towards English and towards Fil-English code-switching. It is a partially comparative study that surveys similarities and differences of attitude towards code-switching between 140 public high school students and 140 private high school students. The survey incorporates both quantitative and qualitative methods. The result shows that participants are generally positive towards English and Fil-English code-switching. However, there are more private school students who have a neutral attitude towards code-switching, compared to public high school students. In addition, the result shows that code-switching amongst the 280 high school students is a marked socio-linguistic activity. Furthermore, the result shows that Fil-English is both subtractive and additive bilingualism from the students’ viewpoint. Finally, findings show that the participants’ attitudes towards English and Fil-English illustrate diglossia in their speech community.

The purpose of this degree paper is to investigate when and why teachers code-switchbetween L1 and L2 in the L2 classroom, and what the teachers’ thoughts about codeswitchingare. To get the information that we need to reach our purpose we have doneclassroom observations and interviewed teachers. The study was performed at a compulsoryschool and an upper secondary school, where we managed to get the co-operation from threeteachers at each school.The main conclusions are that all teachers at the compulsory school code-switched when theytranslated difficult words and phrases when they were too hard for the students to understand.Two of the teachers at the compulsory school used code-switching when they wanted to getthe students’ attention or create order in the classroom. Two of the teachers at the uppersecondary school code-switched when expressing feelings for example irritation. All threeteachers at the upper secondary school believe that code-switching is a helpful instrumentwhen teaching English and is considered to be inevitable.

The United States is in the process of changing demographically. As a result, there is an increasing demand for culturally appropriate counseling services for minority groups. However, little research about counselors' ability to deal with issues stemming from bilingualism is available. As language is used to establish the relationship in counseling, the importance of counselors' understanding regarding how a second language may influence the counseling process is vital. Although numerous studies have thus far emphasized the significance of cultural knowledge and the need for bilingual counseling services, culturally diverse populations continue to be underserved due to language barriers (Gushue, Constantine, and Sciarra, 2008). The American Counseling Association's (ACA) Code of Ethics (2005; 2014) provides best-practice guidelines for appropriate bilingual support during the counseling session. However, few studies have explored the role played by a second or additional language during the counseling session (Marcos and Urcuyo, 1979; Oquendo, 1996; Ramos-Sanchez, 2009; Santiago-Rivera, Altarriba, Poll, Gonzalez-Miller, and Cragun, 2009; Tehrani and Vaughan, 2009). This study adds to the existing body of knowledge about bilingual counselors' experiences providing counseling services in a language in which they have not had professional training. Chapter One provides an overview of the problem, Chapter Two delivers an in-depth literature review, Chapter Three describes the methodology, Chapter Four provides findings of the study, and Chapter Five discusses the results and offers implications for bilingual counselors and counselor educators and supervisors as well as makes suggestions for further research. / Ph. D.