In the recent century, a process of urbanization has increased globally. Previously rural or natural land have been converted into impervious surfaces to make way for housing, industries, and roads. This anthropogenic process has resulted in an increased amount of surface runoff from precipitation, so-called stormwater. Stormwater can accumulate a range of pollutants when it flows over the impervious surfaces of our cities. These pollutants can have a negative impact on the lakes and streams that receive the stormwater from the urban environments. To reduce the environmental problems associated with the content of stormwater, various techniques have been developed for stormwater treatment, with the aim of reducing the pollutant load in the runoff before it enters the receiving waterbody. One such technology is stormwater biofiltration, also known as bioretention. Stormwater biofilters were developed in the USA in the early 90's and they utilize the natural water remediation properties of plant-soil systems. They are generally characterized by a vegetated submerged filter bed with an underlying drainage layer. They have shown to be an effective method for stormwater pollutant removal. The treatment processes take place both in the vegetation and in filter material. As th ematerial choices and design of the biofilters can vary, so can its treatment performance. Stormwater biofilters have grown in popularity in the last decades since their development and numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate the systems’ treatment efficiency. However, knowledge gaps still exist regarding their implementation in colder climates and the suitability of different configurations and materials. This study examines the removal performance of total and dissolved heavy metals (Cd (cadmium),Cu (copper), Pb (lead) and Zn (zinc)), phosphorus, nitrogen and total suspended solids (TSS) in three stormwater biofilters in a Swedish climate, located in central Malmö. The current biofilters are designed with different configurations of their filter media and are built with 1) sand-basedfilter material 2) sand-based filter material with a submerged zone and 3) filter media consisting of 50% sand-based material in combination with 50% pumice. The results showed that the treatment capacity of the biofilters with a filter media of only sand (biofilter S) and with sand as well as a submerged zone (biofilter S_SZ) was similar for all pollutants. The reduction of total levels of metals (> 85 %) and TSS (>90 %) was consistently high and similar to levels achieved in previous studies for both temperate and colder climates. The removal of dissolved metals was lower in comparison to the removal of the total metal fractions, but the dissolved fractions were still generally reduced in the effluent. A positive removal of total phosphorus and total nitrogen was overall displayed in the effluent from the two biofilters; however,leaching was shown for the dissolved fractions. For nitrogen (N) species, the concentrations in the runoff were generally below the detection limit for the analysis making it difficult to establish probable removal percentages. For the biofilter S_P, which contained a mix of sand and pumice, the removal capacity was lowerfor all parameters compared to the other designs. Overall, the pollutant removal performances are regarded to be satisfactory for biofilters S andS_SZ and their implementation suitable for the given site. However, further investigations should be performed during warmer seasons, especially regarding the removal of nutrients.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate putative physiological and ecological constraints on the evolution of viviparity in sceloporine lizards. In Chapters one and two, I investigated the role of in utero oxygen availability as a constraint on the capacity to support embryonic development during extended egg retention. I incubated eggs of sceloporine lizards under conditions that simulated retention in the oviduct under a range of oxygen partial pressures. In Chapter one, I tested the hypothesis that embryos of the oviparous lizard Sceloporus undulatus from a high-latitude population are laid at more advanced developmental stages and have a higher developmental rate at low partial pressure oxygen (pO2) under simulated in utero conditions than embryos from a low-latitude population. This hypothesis was rejected; embryos from the two populations did not differ in embryonic stage at oviposition or developmental rate when incubated under simulated in utero conditions at low pO2. In Chapter two I tested the hypothesis that the degree of embryonic development attained by reptilian embryos in utero is directly related to in utero pO2. The species chosen for the study differed in their capacity to support embryonic development during egg retention and were characterized by developmental arrest (Urosaurus ornatus), retarded development (Sceloporus virgatus), and normal development (Sceloporus scalaris) when eggs are retained past the normal time of oviposition. The estimated in utero pO2's for the three species increased in the order of U. ornatus (5-6 kPa) < S. virgatus (9-11 kPa) < S. scalaris (> 11 kPa). These results indicate that in utero oxygen availability is associated with interspecifc differences in the capacity to support embryonic development during extended egg retention. In Chapter three I tested the hypothesis that embryo thermal requirements determine the northern distributional limit of Sceloporus undulatus. I incubated eggs of S. undulatus under temperature treatments that simulated the thermal environment that eggs would experience if located in nests within their geographic range at 37 °N and at latitudes north of the species present geographic range at 42 and 44 °N. Incubation temperatures simulating nests at 44 °N prolonged incubation and resulted in hatchlings with shorter tails, shorter hind limb span, slower growth and lower survival than hatchlings from eggs incubated at temperatures simulating nests at 37 and 42 °N. I also predicted that the northernmost distributional limit of S. undulatus would be associated with locations that provide the minimum heat sum (degree-days) required to complete embryonic development. Eighty-four percent of location between 37-40 °N had > 495 degree-days above a threshold of 17 °C accumulated during June-September compared to eleven percent of locations between 41-50 °N. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that incubation temperature is an important factor limiting the geographic distributions of oviparous reptile species at high latitudes and high elevations. / Ph. D.

Wind power is one of the fastest growing production methods of electric energy. The expansion of wind power in Sweden are focused to northern counties. There are advantages as good wind conditions and large unexploited areas to build wind farms in the north, but there are also problems caused by the long winters. Due to the long periods of cold climate, ice and snow accumulation on blades are a safety risk, induces production losses and causes wear at wind turbine components. The commercial de-icing systems are not fulfilling the demands of being cost effective and are mainly focusing the heating to the leading edge. Therefore a new de-icing system based on infrared radiation has been investigated. This system is supposed to be placed at the wind turbine tower and de-ice one blade at a time. Experiments with this new de-icing system has been performed in small and full scale at a section of a real wind turbine blade. The experiments were carried out in facilities of Arctic Falls in Piteå. Different parameters as power demand of the heaters, distance between blade and heaters, wavelength of the radiation, influence by the surrounding temperature and total de-icing time were evaluated. Results showed that the largest impact of the efficiency and de-icing time were induced by the distance and width of the radiation spectrum for the heaters. Three types of filaments with different peaks of wavelengths were investigated and the most efficient de-icing was achieved when using a combination of heaters. Measurements of intensity together with de-icing experiments showed that the optimal distance from the blade was 1.5 m for heaters with standard reflectors. The main conclusion from the experiments with an infrared de-icing system is that it works. But not efficient enough to compete with the commercial systems of today even though it manage to de-ice the whole blade instead of just the leading edge. But this de-icing system has good potential if the heaters first of all are developed to radiate a more concentrated beam of radiation that is only focusing at the blades. The new method is estimated to be an lower investment due to that the techniques of infrared heaters are already well implemented in other areas. But more economic calculations has to be done to further motivate the work.

A oviparidade é o modo reprodutivo ancestral dos répteis e a viviparidade surgiu diversas vezes independentemente nos Squamata. O cenário evolutivo mais aceito para a evolução da viviparidade em répteis Squamata propõe que ela é uma adaptação a baixas temperaturas e que resulta de aumentos graduais e progressivos na quantidade de desenvolvimento embrionário ocorrendo dentro do útero antes da postura dos ovos. Essa transição é frequentemente tida como irreversível. No presente trabalho as cobras-dágua da tribo Hydropsini foram utilizadas como modelo para testar de forma comparativa diversas predições derivadas desse cenário. Especificamente, foi avaliado se a evolução da viviparidade na tribo (1) seria um fenômeno irreversível, (2) se ela seria associada a modificações na morfologia uterina e na espessura da casca do ovo e (3) se ela seria correlacionada a regiões de climas frios. Diferentes métodos de análise não corroboram a suposta irreversibilidade da viviparidade e sugerem que a oviparidade em algumas espécies possa ser resultado de reversões. A aquisição da viviparidade em Hydropsini foi acompanhada de modificações importantes na morfologia uterina que incluem a diminuição das dimensões das glândulas uterinas que secretam o material que compõe a casca de ovo. A hipótese de que os aumentos na retenção uterina são acompanhados por diminuição na espessura da casca do ovo não foi corroborada. Por fim, o teste das predições da hipótese do clima frio não obteve suporte para baixas temperaturas como pressão seletiva favorecendo a origem da viviparidade nos Hydropsini. Hipóteses alternativas para explicar a origem da viviparidade na tribo são exploradas. / Oviparity is the ancestral reproductive mode of reptiles and viviparity evolved multiple times independently in Squamata. The most accepted evolutionary scenario for the evolution of viviparity in squamate reptiles suggests that it is an adaptation to low temperatures and that it arises from progressive and gradual increases in the amount of intrauterine embryonic development before egg-laying. In this study, the water snakes of the tribe Hydropsini were used as model system to test, within a comparative framework, several predictions derived from the gradualist scenario for the evolution of viviparity in Squamata. Specifically, it was evaluated if the evolution of viviparity in the tribe (1) is an irreversible phenomenon, (2) if it is associated with changes in uterine morphology and eggshell thickness and (3) if it is correlated to cold climates. The different analytical methods used did not corroborate the irreversibility of viviparity and suggest that oviparity may be revolved in some species. The evolutionary acquisition of viviparity in Hydropsini was accompanied by important uterine changes, including the reduction of the glands that secrete the shell components. The hypothesis that the increases in egg retention are accompanied by decreasing eggshell thickness was not corroborated. Finally, it was not found support for the test of the predictions derived from the cold climate hypothesis for the evolution of viviparity in Hydropsini. Alternative hypothesis explaining this reproductive mode in the group were explored.

Wind turbines often operate under cold weather conditions where icing may occur. Icing causes the blade sections to stall prematurely reducing the power production at a given wind speed. The unsteady aerodynamic loads associated with icing can accelerate blade structural fatigue and creates safety concerns. In this work, the combined blade element-momentum theory is used to compute the air loads on the baseline rotor blades, prior to icing. At each blade section, a Lagrangian particle trajectory model is used to model the water droplet trajectories and their impact on the blade surface. An extended Messinger model is next used to solve the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations in the boundary layer over the surface, and to determine ice accretion rate. Finally, the aerodynamic characteristics of the iced blade sections are estimated using XFOIL, which initiate the next iteration step for the computation of air loads via combined blade element theory. The procedure repeats until a desired exposure time is achieved. The performance degradation is then predicted, based on the aerodynamic characteristics of the final iced blades. The 2-D ice shapes obtained are compared against experimental data at several representative atmospheric conditions with acceptable agreement. The performance of a generic experimental wind turbine rotor exposed to icing climate is simulated to obtain the power loss and identify the critical locations on the blade. The results suggest the outboard of the blade is more prone to ice accumulation causing considerable loss of lift at these sections. Also, the blades operating at a higher pitch are expected to accumulate more ice. The loss in power ranges from 10% to 50% of the rated power for different pitch settings under the same operating conditions.

As wind power expands rapidly worldwide, it is becoming more common to build wind farms in alpine locations where the wind resources often are good and conflicting interests are few. This is evident in Sweden where a substantial portion of the large wind parks planned are to be built in cold climate locations. The fact that icing of turbine blades and sensors can severely impact the production raises the question how large the losses are. In this thesis 10 wind parks comprising 45 turbines, well dispersed throughout Sweden are investigated. Daily production figures are compared to wind data from the MERRA reanalysis data-set in order to see if it is possible to determine the level of losses during the winter period caused by cold climate. A method is suggested where a relationship between daily production and daily average wind speed is established using representative summer days. This relationship is then used to calculate an expected production for the winter period. Losses are concluded as the difference between expected and actual production. The method did not produce a consistent and reliable result for the sites investigated. However, the method captures the overall trend with higher losses in the north of Sweden compared to the sites in the south where little or no icing is likely. At the sites where icing is expected, losses in the range of 10 to 20% of the annual production were calculated.

A oviparidade é o modo reprodutivo ancestral dos répteis e a viviparidade surgiu diversas vezes independentemente nos Squamata. O cenário evolutivo mais aceito para a evolução da viviparidade em répteis Squamata propõe que ela é uma adaptação a baixas temperaturas e que resulta de aumentos graduais e progressivos na quantidade de desenvolvimento embrionário ocorrendo dentro do útero antes da postura dos ovos. Essa transição é frequentemente tida como irreversível. No presente trabalho as cobras-dágua da tribo Hydropsini foram utilizadas como modelo para testar de forma comparativa diversas predições derivadas desse cenário. Especificamente, foi avaliado se a evolução da viviparidade na tribo (1) seria um fenômeno irreversível, (2) se ela seria associada a modificações na morfologia uterina e na espessura da casca do ovo e (3) se ela seria correlacionada a regiões de climas frios. Diferentes métodos de análise não corroboram a suposta irreversibilidade da viviparidade e sugerem que a oviparidade em algumas espécies possa ser resultado de reversões. A aquisição da viviparidade em Hydropsini foi acompanhada de modificações importantes na morfologia uterina que incluem a diminuição das dimensões das glândulas uterinas que secretam o material que compõe a casca de ovo. A hipótese de que os aumentos na retenção uterina são acompanhados por diminuição na espessura da casca do ovo não foi corroborada. Por fim, o teste das predições da hipótese do clima frio não obteve suporte para baixas temperaturas como pressão seletiva favorecendo a origem da viviparidade nos Hydropsini. Hipóteses alternativas para explicar a origem da viviparidade na tribo são exploradas. / Oviparity is the ancestral reproductive mode of reptiles and viviparity evolved multiple times independently in Squamata. The most accepted evolutionary scenario for the evolution of viviparity in squamate reptiles suggests that it is an adaptation to low temperatures and that it arises from progressive and gradual increases in the amount of intrauterine embryonic development before egg-laying. In this study, the water snakes of the tribe Hydropsini were used as model system to test, within a comparative framework, several predictions derived from the gradualist scenario for the evolution of viviparity in Squamata. Specifically, it was evaluated if the evolution of viviparity in the tribe (1) is an irreversible phenomenon, (2) if it is associated with changes in uterine morphology and eggshell thickness and (3) if it is correlated to cold climates. The different analytical methods used did not corroborate the irreversibility of viviparity and suggest that oviparity may be revolved in some species. The evolutionary acquisition of viviparity in Hydropsini was accompanied by important uterine changes, including the reduction of the glands that secrete the shell components. The hypothesis that the increases in egg retention are accompanied by decreasing eggshell thickness was not corroborated. Finally, it was not found support for the test of the predictions derived from the cold climate hypothesis for the evolution of viviparity in Hydropsini. Alternative hypothesis explaining this reproductive mode in the group were explored.

Wind turbines are becoming a more common sight and a more important part in the power grid. The benefits are mainly that wind energy is a renewable energy source and a single wind turbine can produce enough electricity to cover several households’ annual electricity need and not producing carbon dioxide as a rest product. Drawbacks are fluctuation in wind speed, which makes it difficult to regulate. The turbines need to be placed far from cities which cause losses in transmission in the national power grid.  In cold areas with long winters there is a risk of high energy losses due to iced blades. If there is ice accretion on the wind turbine blades it can cause a production loss and in extension economical losses by not selling the electricity. Finding those events is of high interest and there are methods to prevent and remove ice. However, there are occasions when there is ice on the blades, but no sensors signal this, and the production loss is a fact. There is a presumed production loss of 5-25 % annually due to icing on wind turbines in Sweden, depending on where the site is located. There is no general method for detecting ice in the industry but there are several methods available developed by different parties.  In this master’s thesis, a software has been developed in cooperation with Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy to identify production losses on wind turbines due to icing using historical SCADA data. The software filters the raw data to construct a reference curve, to which data during cold weather is compared. It was found that low temperature causes ice losses, and the risk of an ice loss increases as temperature decreases. The annual losses at investigated wind farms were 4-10 % of the expected annual production. / Vindkraftverk blir en allt vanligare syn och en viktigare del i kraftnätet. Fördelarna är framförallt att det är en förnybar energykälla, det blir inga koldioxidutsläpp när vindkraftverken har installerats och ett vindkraftverk kan täcka flera hushålls årliga elbehov. Nackdelar är att vinden inte går att kontrollera och elproduktionen inte är garanterad eller konstant. Vindkraftverk placeras långt ifrån tätorter, vilket leder till förluster under distribution.  I kalla regioner med långa vintrar uppstår en risk för energiförluster på grund av nedisade turbinblad. Om det finns ispåbyggnad på turbinbladen kan det orsaka produktionsförluster och följaktligen en ekonomisk förlust. Det är av stort intresse i att upptäcka dessa och det finns flera metoder för att förbygga is och även avisning. Det antas vara produktionsförluster på 5-25 % årligen på grund av is i Sverige, beroende på vindparkens placering. Det finns ingen generell metod för att upptäcka is inom industrin, men det finns flera metoder utvecklade av olika parter.  I det här examensarbetet har en mjukvara utvecklats i samarbete med Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy för att upptäcka produktionsförluster hos vindkraftverk orsakade av nedisade turbinblad genom att använda SCADA-data. Mjukvaran filtrerar rådata för att beräkna en referenskurva, mot vilken data för kallt väder kan jämföras. Den visar att det finns korrelation mellan låg temperatur och produktionsförluster samt att risken för produktionsförlust ökar då temperaturen sjunker. De årliga produktionsförlusterna hos de undersökta vindparkerna var 4-10 % av den förväntade årliga produktionen.

Partial-infiltration permeable pavement (PP) systems provide environmental benefits by increasing infiltration, attenuating storm flows and improving stormwater quality. This thesis focuses on the performance and operation of partial-infiltration PP systems over low permeability soil in Ontario. Three PP, AquaPave®, Eco-Optiloc® and Hydromedia® Pervious Concrete were monitored over two years and their performance was evaluated relative to an impermeable Asphalt control. Field data was collected from the Kortright PP pilot parking lot in Vaughan, Ontario. Through the use of restrictor valves on underdrains the PP systems were shown to provide substantial hydrologic benefits by eliminating stormwater outflow for rain events less than 7mm, reducing peak flows by 91% and reducing total stormwater volume by 43%. Stormwater quality was analyzed for winter and non-winter seasons. The PP were shown to greatly reduce the concentration and total loading of suspended solids, nutrients, hydrocarbons and most heavy metals. Some water quality data, such as pH, K, or Sr levels, indicate that the quality of PP effluent will change as the system ages. Study of PP sample boxes at the University of Guelph highlighted the role that construction materials have on effluent quality and showed that pollutants introduced by the pavement and aggregate are almost entirely in a dissolved form and decline very rapidly after a season of exposure to rainfall. Benefits to water quality were sustained during winter months. The partial-infiltration PP systems were shown to provide buffering of Na and Cl concentrations. Small and large-scale maintenance practices for PP systems were investigated. Small-sized equipment testing found that vacuum cleaning and pressure-washing have good potential to improve infiltration capacity. Testing of full-sized streetsweeping trucks demonstrated that permeability can be partially restored on PICP by suction-based sweeping. Vacuum-sweeping was beneficial on a PC pavement which had experienced large permeability losses. Results of this study indicate that partial-infiltration PP systems can be effective measures for maintaining or restoring infiltration functions on parking lots and other low volume traffic areas, even in areas with low permeability soils.

Abstract A conceptual framework was developed to assess how changes in temperature and precipitation affect sub-surface hydrology, groundwater recharge, groundwater quantity and quality. A conceptual and statistical approach was developed to predict groundwater level variations. Daily rainfall, snowmelt and evapotranspiration values were generated with a novel conceptual hydrological model developed in this study. These values were cross-correlated with observed groundwater levels to find representative time lags and significant correlations. A statistical model linking rainfall, snowmelt, evapotranspiration and groundwater level was then developed and validated. The model simulated seasonal variations in groundwater level very accurately. A sequential approach was developed to assess surface water-groundwater interactions. The simulated surface water level estimated with the WSFS model and recharge estimated with CoupModel were linked to the groundwater flow model MODFLOW. Groundwater, surface water and snow samples were collected to study the chemical composition of groundwater in an unconfined esker aquifer in Northern Finland. Concentrations of Ca2+, Cl-, NO3-N and SiO2 and electrical conductivity were determined. Water quality in the main aquifer was found to be similar to that in the perched groundwater. Solute concentrations generally decreased during and immediately after snowmelt periods, indicating the importance of snowmelt input for groundwater quality. In the perched groundwater, NO3-N concentration increased with elevated groundwater level, indicating a nitrogen source on the land surface. The Cl- concentration in groundwater decreased when the surface water level rose higher than groundwater level. According to simulation results for the A1B climate change scenario, groundwater recharge is projected to increase in winter months due to increased snowmelt and decreased soil frost depth. The spring snowmelt peak in late spring will decrease. This will reduce aquifer storage in early spring, increasing the vulnerability to summer droughts. It is projected that flow regimes between unconfined aquifers and surface water may change, affecting water quantity and possibly quality in groundwater systems. / Tiivistelmä Tässä työssä kehitettiin konseptuaalinen viitekehysmalli, jolla voidaan arvioida kuinka muutokset lämpötilassa ja sadannassa vaikuttavat hydrologiaan, pohjaveden muodostumiseen, pohjaveden määrään ja laatuun. Tässä työssä kehitettiin ja yhdistettiin konseptuaalinen ja tilastomatemaattinen regressiomalli, jolla voidaan simuloida pohjaveden pinnankorkeuden muutoksia. Konseptuaalisella mallilla laskettiin päivittäinen sadanta, lumen sulanta ja haihdunta. Havaitut pohjaveden pinnankorkeudet korreloitiin sadannan, lumen sulannan ja haihdunnan kanssa, jotta löydettiin merkitsevät korrelaatiot tyypillisillä viiveillä. Lopuksi tilastollinen regressiomalli, joka yhdistää sadannan, lumen sulannan, haihdunnan ja pohjaveden pinnankorkeuden, kalibroitiin ja validoitiin. Kehitetyllä mallilla onnistuttiin simuloimaan vuodenaikainen pohjaveden pinnankorkeus. Yhdensuuntainen mallinnusmenetelmä kehitettiin arvioimaan pinta- ja pohjaveden vuorovaikutusta. Menetelmässä pintaveden korkeus ja pohjaveden muodostuminen linkitettiin ajan suhteen muuttuvina reunaehtoina pohjavedenvirtauksen mallinnusohjelmaan MODFLOW. Simuloidut pintaveden pinnankorkeudet saatiin Suomen ympäristökeskuksen vesistömallijärjestelmästä ja pohjaveden muodostuminen simuloitiin 1D lämmön- ja aineensiirtomallilla, CoupModel. Pudasjärven Törrönkankaan pohjavesimuodostumasta, Pudasjärvestä, Kivarinjoesta ja lumesta kerättiin näytteet ja niistä määritettiin Ca2+, Cl-, NO3-N ja SiO2 pitoisuudet sekä sähkönjohtavuus. Pitoisuudet pohja- ja salpavedessä olivat hyvin samanlaiset. Pitoisuudet yleisesti pienenivät, kun pohjaveden pinnankorkeus nousi etenkin keväisin lumien sulamisen jälkeen. Ainoastaan salpavedessä NO3-N pitoisuus kasvoi, kun pohjaveden pinnankorkeus nousi. Tämä johtuu todennäköisesti salpaveden yläpuolella olevasta NO3-N lähteestä. Cl- pitoisuus pohjavedessä pieneni, kun pintaveden korkeus nousi korkeammalle kuin pohjavesi. A1B ilmastoskenaariossa pohjaveden muodostumisen ennakoidaan lisääntyvän talvikuukausina. Tämä johtuu lumen sulannan lisääntymisestä ja roudan vähenemisestä. Keväinen lumen sulamisen huippu voi mahdollisesti pienentyä ja johtaa pohjavesivarojen pienentymiseen keväisin. A1B ilmastoskenaariossa pinta- ja pohjaveden vuorovaikutus voi myös muuttua ja siten vaikuttaa pohjaveden määrään ja mahdollisesti myös laatuun.