Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:36:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mariana Zicari Di Monte.pdf: 2990505 bytes, checksum: f99d9fee76550db83998b21ad7b7873b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-02 / Proact Empreendimentos Tecnológicos S/C Ltda / This paper presents an evaluation of the effects of strain hardening on the kinetics of nitriding thermochemical treatment of alloys of ferritic steels AISI 430 and AISI 439 for different degrees of plastic deformation. The technique used to apply the plastic deformation level was increased by a universal tensile machine. Then we proceeded to apply the processes of gas nitriding, in salt baths and plasma, the alloys in the annealed condition and for different degrees of hardening. The samples were characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, hardness tests and examination of the microhardness profile of the layers. It also employed the technique of X-ray diffraction in order to determine the phases present in the nitrided layer. As a result of this study, it was found that the hardening has no effect on the kinetics of nitriding processes, nor levels of hardness achieved in the nitrided layer. The layer thickness was raised to a gas nitriding process, which besides the exposure time at temperature was held at temperature higher than the other processes studied. This study also presents the results of microstructure and curves of the percentage of nitrogen and carbon depending on the depth of the nitrided layer. Note that the nitrogen concentration decreases with depth as approaching the base metal. Carbon, in turn, is pushed into the sample, providing a decarburization in the region enriched in nitrogen and carbon accumulation in the regions just below the nitrided layer. The spectra of X-ray diffraction corresponding to the nitrided layers of steels 430 and 439 indicated the presence of CrN precipitate rich in nitrogen. The alloy 430 suffered heavy attack to a depth of about 30 Um on the other hand the alloy 439 had the region with little predominance of attack, with small volume fractions of more intense attack. The hardness levels of light and dark regions were similars, around 1000 HV, indicating an efficient mechanism of precipitation hardening. It concluded that the chromium nitride is present in both regions, and the highest attack can be related to a discontinuous precipitation process, probably due to iron nitride Fe3N, contrary to what was found in the literature. / O presente trabalho apresenta uma avaliação dos efeitos de encruamento na cinética do tratamento termoquímico de nitretação em ligas de aços inoxidáveis ferríticos AISI 430 e AISI 439 para diferentes graus de deformação plástica. A técnica empregada para se aplicar a deformação plástica em nível crescente foi por meio de uma máquina universal de tração. Em seguida procedeu-se a aplicação dos processos de nitretação gasosa, em banhos de sais e por plasma, nas ligas no estado recozido e para os diferentes graus de encruamento. As amostras foram caracterizadas por microscopia óptica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, ensaios de dureza e levantamento do perfil de microdureza das camadas. Foi empregada também a técnica de difração de raios-X, com o objetivo de se determinar quais as fases presentes na camada nitretada. Como resultado principal deste estudo, concluiu-se que o encruamento não apresentou nenhum efeito na cinética dos processos de nitretação, nem tão pouco nos níveis de dureza atingidos nas camadas nitretadas. A espessura da camada foi maior para o processo de nitretação a gás, que além do tempo em exposição em temperatura, foi realizada em temperatura superior aos outros processos estudados. Este estudo também apresenta os resultados de microestrutura e as curvas de percentual de nitrôgenio e carbono em função da profundidade de camada nitretada. Nota-se que a concentração de nitrogênio diminui com a profundidade à medida que se aproxima do metal base. O carbono, por seu turno, é empurrado para dentro da amostra, promovendo uma descarbonetação na região enriquecida em nitrogênio, e um acúmulo de carbono nas regiões logo abaixo da camada nitretada. Os espectros de difração de raios-X correspondentes às camadas nitretadas dos aços 430 e 439, indicaram a presença do precipitado rico em nitrogênio CrN. A liga 430 sofreu ataque intenso até uma profundidade da ordem de 30 Um; já a liga 439 apresentava predominância de região com pouco ataque, com pequena fração volumétrica de ataque mais intenso. Os níveis de dureza da região clara e escura eram similares, por volta de 1000 HV, indicando um eficiente mecanismo de endurecimento por precipitação. Infere-se que o nitreto de cromo se faz presente nas duas regiões, sendo que o maior ataque pode estar relacionado a um processo de precipitação descontínua, provavelmente associado ao nitreto de ferro Fe3N, contrariamente ao que se encontrou na literatura.

Les aciers inoxydables austénitiques de type 304L et 316L sont largement employés dans le circuit primaire des centrales nucléaires à Réacteurs à Eau sous Pression (REP). Le retour d'expérience indique la présence d'un nombre limité de fissures intergranulaires dues à la corrosion sous contrainte (CSC) sur des composants en acier inoxydable écroui. Il a été démontré qu'une pré-déformation importante associée à un chargement cyclique favorise la propagation des fissures de CSC. L'objectif de l'étude est d'améliorer la compréhension du rôle de la pré-déformation par traction ou par laminage sur les mécanismes d'amorçage de la CSC pour les aciers inoxydables austénitiques. Le comportement mécanique des matériaux écrouis a été caractérisé et des essais d'amorçage en milieu primaire simulé ont été réalisés sur des éprouvettes entaillées. L'ensemble des essais d'amorçage réalisés a confirmé un fort effet du trajet de chargement sur la sensibilité à l'amorçage des matériaux étudiés, quel que soit le niveau de pré-déformation. Un critère global a été proposé pour réunir les deux aspects de l'amorçage de la fissuration que sont la densité de fissures et leur profondeur. Ce critère est utile pour caractériser l'amorçage tandis que la profondeur maximale de fissure est le paramètre pertinent pour définir la transition entre propagation lente et propagation rapide. Des cartes de sensibilité à l'amorçage vrai ont été établies. Une profondeur critique de fissure de 10 à 20 µm a été déterminée pour les aciers 316L A et B pré-déformés par laminage. Elle est comprise entre 20 µm et 50 µm pour les matériaux pré-déformés par traction. Une ébauche de modèle d'ingénierie applicable aux aciers inoxydables austénitiques a été proposée : l'effet de la température est négligeable dans la gamme 290°C-360°C et l'impact de la contrainte sur le temps pour obtenir la transition varie comme (max/Rp0.2, T°C)11,5. L'effet du trajet de chargement ainsi que de l'écrouissage de surface dû à l'usinage sont intégrés indirectement à l'indice de contrainte, à ce stade du modèle. L'effet « matériau » observé dans cette étude tient principalement à l'effet du trajet de déformation. La puissance élevée de la dépendance à la contrainte traduit l'intégration de différents paramètres favorisant la localisation de la déformation. Pour cette raison, il sera nécessaire de définir le champ des contraintes locales pour parvenir à une modélisation plus physique. / Austenitic stainless steels are widely used in primary circuits of Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) plants. However, a limited number of cases of Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (IGSCC) has been detected in cold-worked (CW) areas of non-sensitized austenitic stainless steel components in French PWRs. A previous program launched in the early 2000's identified the required conditions for SCC of cold-worked stainless steels. It was found that a high strain hardening coupled with a cyclic loading favoured SCC. The present study aims at better understanding the role of pre-straining on crack initiation and at developing an engineering model for IGSCC initiation of 304L and 316L stainless steels in primary water. Such model will be based on SCC initiation tests on notched (not pre-cracked) specimens under “trapezoidal” cyclic loading. The effects of pre-straining (tensile versus cold rolling), cold-work level and strain path on the SCC mechanisms are investigated. Experimental results demonstrate the dominating effect of strain path on SCC susceptibility for all pre-straining levels. Initiation can be understood as crack density and crack depth. A global criterion has been proposed to integrate both aspects of initiation. Maps of SCC initiation susceptibility have been proposed. A critical crack depth between 10 and 20 µm has been demonstrated to define transition between slow propagation and fast propagation for rolled materials. For tensile pre-straining, the critical crack depth is in the range 20 - 50 µm. Experimental evidences support the notion of a KISCC threshold, whose value depends on materials, pre-straining ant load applied. The initiation time has been found to depend on the applied loading as a function of (max/YV)11,5. The effect of both strain path and surface hardening is indirectly taken into account via the yield stress. In this study, material differences rely on strain path effect on mechanical properties. As a result, a stress high exponent has been identified which includes all micro-scale mechanisms leading to strain localisation at initiation sites.

Slat-band chains are used as conveyors by the food industry, breweries and bottling plants. The operating conditions require abrasion resistance and strength which are at the limit of the capabilities of the current material of choice, cold worked type 430. In an unconventional way of strengthening this material, Mintek developed a process in which the cold worked material is aged between 450°C and 500°C. The present work aims to elucidate the strengthening mechanism, using type 430 stainless steel containing 16.42% Cr and 0.036% C, in the cold-rolled condition (38% reduction in area), with and without prior solution heat treatment. The Cr-rich precipitate α" may form in the 450°C to 500°C range (due to the miscibility gap in the Fe-Cr system), resulting in the increased hardness and lowered ductility. Mossbauer studies confirmed that the α", at this composition and temperature, forms through the process of nucleation and growth. Hardening due to α" precipitation was only observed after aging for 64 hours or more, however. After increasing the dissolved interstitial content by solution heat treatments (in the vicinity of 900°C), increases in Vickers hardness of 30-50 kg/mm2 could be obtained after only 8 minutes at 475°C. This hardness increase corresponds to an increase in tensile strength of more than 100 MPa. The increased hardness does not appear to be caused by strain aging, and presumably results from fine carbide or nitride precipitation. Solution treatment at 930°C also introduced some martensite (α') into the microstructure, which raised the hardness of the unaged cold worked material. Overaging of the carbide and nitride precipitates was observed at 475°C, but not at 450°C, probably due to the lower diffusion rates at the lower temperature. No averaging of the α" precipitates occurred, for aging times up to 2072 hours. Samples aged for selected periods of time at 475°C had low impact strengths - even well before the formation of α" - and revealed predominantly cleavage fracture with some ductile fracture areas, mostly at grain boundaries. Both impact strength and lateral expansion indicated that embrittlement accompanies the increased hardness obtained by aging. Calculation of critical crack lengths from the impact data, however, revealed that a maximum flaw length of 0.8 mm, for specimens solution treated at 880°C, could be tolerated before catastrophic failure. Since it is not expected that flaws of that size would exist in the as manufactured links, fatigue will probably determine the lifetime of the chains, although the lower K1c values indicate that less crack propagation will be tolerated before brittle fracture. During the aging treatment, the strength may be lowered by recrystallisation of the coldworked material. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed the start of recovery, but no recrystallisation. Some large precipitates (around lμm in diameter) were present. These were identified, through their diffraction patterns, as M23C6; these carbides were present in both aged and unaged material and hence represent precipitates which had not dissolved during the initial solution treatments. The α" precipitates- and the presumed newly formed nitride and carbide precipitates - were too fine for detection by TEM. Potentiodynamic testing of the treated material in a 0.5M H2SO4 solution indicated that, although the probable hardening mechanisms imply localised Cr depletion of the matrix, the general corrosion resistance and passivation behaviour were not affected. It is concluded that the strength of the chain may be increased markedly by short-term heat treatments at 475°C, with lowered toughness, but with no decrease in corrosion resistance. Martensite, work hardening, and precipitation of carbides and nitrides all contribute to the final strength, with α" formation only becoming significant after longer aging times. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / unrestricted

Abstract Cold is a very common physical risk factor in workplaces in circumpolar regions. Cold has many detrimental effects on human health and performance, and on the safety, quality and productivity of work. In this study a systematic general Cold Risk Management Model was developed, applied and evaluated. The model can be integrated in a company’s or an organization’s occupational safety, health, environment and quality (SHEQ) management systems and practices in workplaces. The Cold Risk Management Model and methods were later included in ISO 15743 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Cold workplaces – Risk assessment and management. The Cold Risk Management Model and methods were applied in two case company’s SHEQ systems and practices in the fields of construction and maritime administration and services. Based on the case studies, the concrete cold risk management activities and the personnel training campaign resulted in immediate positive results and improved attitudes towards further development. At the national level, working in the cold was estimated to increase personnel costs in the construction industry annually by €50M, which is 3% of the industry’s annual personnel costs. This study also showed that the Cold Risk Management Model and methods are profitable. In the case construction company, the savings achieved by cold risk management activities at a construction site were 2.5 time the costs of those activities. A follow-up study in the case company in the field of maritime administration and services showed that implementation and dissemination of the Cold Risk Management Model and methods require systematic work also after the initial development process. The implementation process could and should be enhanced by early establishment of organization-wide guidelines, visible concrete actions, a training campaign and use of necessary external experts. This study also presents a Safety Management Matrix Model for analyzing development and implementation activities during the process time span. / Tiivistelmä Kylmä on yksi yleisimmistä työympäristön riskitekijöistä pohjoisissa oloissamme. Kylmästä aiheutuu haittaa ihmisen toimintakyvylle ja terveydelle sekä työn turvallisuudelle, laadulle ja tuottavuudelle. Tässä väitöstutkimuksessa kehitettiin systemaattinen kylmäriskien hallintamalli osaksi yrityksen työterveys- ja työturvallisuus-, ympäristö- ja laatujohtamisjärjestelmiä (SHEQ). Kehitetty kylmäriskien hallintamalli menetelmineen on nykyisin osa standardia ”SFS-EN ISO 15743 Lämpöolojen ergonomia. Kylmät työpaikat. riskin arviointi ja hallinta”. Kylmäriskien hallintamallia ja sen menetelmiä sovellettiin ja edelleen kehitettiin kahdessa tapausyrityksessä rakennusalalla sekä merenkulun tukipalveluissa. Konkreettisista kehittämistoimenpiteistä ja henkilöstön koulutuksesta koettiin tapausyrityksissä saadun välitöntä hyötyä, ja ne johtivat positiivisiin asenteisiin jatkokehittämistyötä kohtaan. Tutkimuksessa arvioitiin kylmätyön myös lisäävän rakennusalan henkilöstökustannuksia vuosittain 50 miljoonalla eurolla, mikä oli 3 % alan vuotuisista palkkakustannuksista. Tapaustutkimuksen avulla osoitettiin, että kylmänhaittojen hallinta on kannattavaa. 20 henkilön rakennustyömaalla kylmänhaittojen hallinnalla saavutettavat säästöt olivat 2,5-kertaiset toimenpiteistä aiheutuneisiin kuluihin verrattuina. Merenkulun tukipalvelujen alalla toimivassa tapausyrityksessä tehdyn seurantatutkimuksen mukaan kylmäriskien hallintamallin käyttöönotto ja levittäminen yrityksessä vaatii kuitenkin aikaa ja systemaattista työtä. Mallin käyttöönottoa ja levittämistä voidaan tutkimuksen perusteella nopeuttaa kehittämistyön näkyvyydellä ja konkreettisuudella, koulutuksella, organisaatiotasoisten ohjeiden laatimisella aikaisessa vaiheessa sekä erityisesti asiantuntijatuen saatavuudella koko implementointivaiheen ajan. Tutkimuksessa syntyi myös turvallisuusjohtamismatriisi työkaluksi kehittämistyön suunnitteluun ja arviointiin.

In this study, the possibility of using low pressure hydrogenated steam to simulate primary water reactor conditions is examined. The oxides formed on Alloy 600 (WF675) between 350 Celsius and 500 Celsius in low pressure hydrogenated steam (with a ratio of oxygen at the Ni/NiO to oxygen in the system of 20) have been characterised using analytical electron microscopy (AEM) and compared to oxide that formed in a high pressure water in a autoclave at 350 Celsius with 30 cc/kg of hydrogen. Preferential oxidation of grain boundaries and bulk internal oxidation were observed on samples prepared by oxide polishing suspension (OPS). Conversely, samples mechanically ground to 600 grit produced a continuous, protective oxide film which suppressed the preferential and internal oxidation. The surface preparation changed the form of the oxides in both steam and autoclave tests. The preferential oxidation rate has been determined to be K_{oxide} = Aexp{-Q/RT}with A = 2.27×10^(−3) m^(2)s^(−1) and Q = 221 kJ.mol^(−1) (activation energy) for WF675 and A = 5.04 × 10^(−7) m^(2)s^(−1) and Q = 171 kJ.mol^(−1) for 15% cold worked WF675. These values are consistent with the activation energy of primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) initiation. Bulk oxygen diffusivities were calculated from the internal oxidation after 500 h exposures. At 500 Celsius the oxygen diffusivity was determined to be 1.79×10^(−20) m^(2)s^(−1) for WF675 and 1.21×10^(−20) m^(2)s^(−1) for 15% cold worked WF675, the oxygen diffusivity at 400 Celsius in 15% cold worked WF675 was calculated to be 1.49×10^(−22) m^(2)s^(−1).The Cr-depletion associated with preferential oxidation has been assessed by AEM. The Cr-depletion was asymmetric and it could not be accounted for by local variations in the diffusion rate. Chemically induced grain boundary migration is suggested as a possible explanation. Constant load SCC tests conducted in hydrogenated steam at 400 Celsius have shown a similar trend to the classical dependency of PWSCC as a function of potential. The SCC samples were also prepared with two surface finishes, OPS and 600 grit. In all SCC tests, significantly more cracking was observed on the OPS surface and all failures initiated from this surface.

No description available.

The majority of UK’s intermediate level radioactive waste is currently stored in 316L and 304L austenitic stainless steel containers in interim storage facilities for permanent disposal until a geological disposal facility has become available. The structural integrity of stainless steel canisters is required to persevere against environmental degradation for up to 500 years to assure a safe storage and disposal scheme. Hitherto existing severe localised corrosion observances on real waste storage containers after 10 years of exposure to an ambient atmosphere in an in-land warehouse in Culham at Oxfordshire, however, questioned the likelihood occurrence of stress corrosion cracking that may harm the canister’s functionality during long-term storage. The more corrosion resistant duplex stainless steel grade 2205, therefore, has been started to be manufactured as a replacement for the austenitic grades. Over decades, the threshold stress corrosion cracking temperature of austenitic stainless steels has been believed to be 50-60°C, but lab- and field-based research has shown that 304L and 316L may suffer from atmospheric stress corrosion cracking at ambient temperatures. Such an issue has not been reported to occur for the 2205 duplex steel, and its atmospheric stress corrosion cracking behaviour at low temperatures (40-50°C) has been sparsely studied which requires detailed investigations in this respect. Low temperature atmospheric stress corrosion cracking investigations on 2205 duplex stainless steel formed the framework of this PhD thesis with respect to the waste storage context. Long-term surface magnesium chloride deposition exposures at 50°C and 30% relative humidity for up to 15 months exhibited the occurrence of stress corrosion cracks, showing stress corrosion susceptibility of 2205 duplex stainless steel at 50°C.The amount of cold work increased the cracking susceptibility, with bending deformation being the most critical type of deformation mode among tensile and rolling type of cold work. The orientation of the microstructure deformation direction, i.e. whether the deformation occurred in transverse or rolling direction, played vital role in corrosion and cracking behaviour, as such that bending in transverse direction showed almost 3-times larger corrosion and stress corrosion cracking propensity. Welding simulation treatments by ageing processes at 750°C and 475°C exhibited substantial influences on the corrosion properties. It was shown that sensitisation ageing at 750°C can render the material enhanced susceptible to stress corrosion cracking at even low chloride deposition densities of ≤145 µm/cm². However, it could be shown that short-term heat treatments at 475°C can decrease corrosion and stress corrosion cracking susceptibility which may be used to improve the materials performance. Mechanistic understanding of stress corrosion cracking phenomena in light of a comprehensive microstructure characterisation was the main focus of this thesis.