Introduction Nearly all flat panel video display monitors have luminance and colour variations as the angle of view varies from the monitor’s perpendicular. The new MicrotileTM displays developed by Christie Digital are no exception to this general finding. A review of any book on colour science will show that there is substantial amount of literature on just noticeable colour differences within various colour spaces. Despite the wealth of data on the topic, there is no general consensus across different industries as to which colour space and colour difference equations are appropriate. Several factors like the background colour, object size, texture of the stimulus are different for different studies; these factors make it very difficult to determine precisely the effect of viewing angle on the perception of coloured images on the Microtiles display based on previous research. Hence, the objective of this thesis was to quantify the measured colour shifts of a Microtile display at different viewing angles, in steps of perceptible thresholds and to evaluate the acceptability of distortions at different viewing angles for complex scenes. Methods A preliminary experiment was setup to study the behaviour of Microtile display primaries as a function of viewing angle. The aim was to measure the shift in hue and luminance of the three primaries at different eccentricities (from 0o to 40o). The measured trend was used to simulate Microtile shifts on complex images for the rating task. In the first part of the perceptibility experiment, three reference colours were picked and 12 vectors heading towards the blue-yellow region of the L*a*b* colour space (pertaining to the colour shifts noticed with the Microtile displays). A uniform reference colour was presented in three of the four quadrants on the CRT monitor and one quadrant changed colour in the direction of the sampled vector. An adaptive, four alternate forced choice procedure was employed to determine thresholds for each of the 3 reference colours. The adaptive technique used was a ZEST paradigm. In the second part of the perceptibility experiment, eighteen directions were sampled around each reference colour. The rating task was based on simulating the measured attenuations of the Microtile primaries on complex scenes. Subjects rated the images both in terms of acceptability/unacceptability and as percentage image degradation. The simulation was presented on three static complex images, car, landscape and portrait. A total of 60 subjects participated in the study, 20 subjects for each experiment. All subjects were between the age group of 15 to 35 years of age and underwent battery of colour vision tests before being included in the study. All subjects included had average to superior colour discrimination as categorized using the FM-100 Hue discrimination test. Results Study1: The preliminary study on Microtile display characteristics as a function of viewing angle showed that all the three primaries decreased in luminance with change in viewing angle. The red primary decreased at a faster rate compared to the other two primaries. The trend presents as a decrease in luminance with the hue shifting towards the blue-green region of the CIE1974 L*a*b* space. Study 2: Results from both the first and second parts of the perceptibility experiment showed that the vectors sampled in different directions approximated to ellipsoids in the L*a*b* colour space. This finding was consistent with the colour discrimination literature. Vectors on the equi-luminance plane were significantly longer than the vectors on the non equi-Luminance plane. Results showed that the average perceptibility thresholds in the non equi-luminance direction were lower than 1∆ELab¬¬¬¬. Study 3: Results from the rating experiments showed that irrespective of the complexities in the images, distortions greater than five times thresholds were less than 50% acceptable and were rated to be at least 30% degraded. This corresponds to a viewing angle greater than 10o for a Microtile display. The relationship between the stimulus (ΔE) and subjective Image degradation judgements followed a linear relationship, with the portrait and landscape having similar functions, whereas the car was rated more degraded at lower ΔEs and less degraded at higher ΔEs compared with the other two scenes. Conclusion Perceptibility thresholds for different reference colours showed that the conventionally used calibration precision of 1 ΔELab is a lenient criterion. Perceptibility thresholds are at least 25% less for the Microtile display reference condition. From the results of the rating data a distortion greater than five times thresholds is less than 50% acceptable and appears to be at least 30% degraded for static complex images. However, the image quality judgments appear to be related to scene context, which requires further study.

Introduction Nearly all flat panel video display monitors have luminance and colour variations as the angle of view varies from the monitor’s perpendicular. The new MicrotileTM displays developed by Christie Digital are no exception to this general finding. A review of any book on colour science will show that there is substantial amount of literature on just noticeable colour differences within various colour spaces. Despite the wealth of data on the topic, there is no general consensus across different industries as to which colour space and colour difference equations are appropriate. Several factors like the background colour, object size, texture of the stimulus are different for different studies; these factors make it very difficult to determine precisely the effect of viewing angle on the perception of coloured images on the Microtiles display based on previous research. Hence, the objective of this thesis was to quantify the measured colour shifts of a Microtile display at different viewing angles, in steps of perceptible thresholds and to evaluate the acceptability of distortions at different viewing angles for complex scenes. Methods A preliminary experiment was setup to study the behaviour of Microtile display primaries as a function of viewing angle. The aim was to measure the shift in hue and luminance of the three primaries at different eccentricities (from 0o to 40o). The measured trend was used to simulate Microtile shifts on complex images for the rating task. In the first part of the perceptibility experiment, three reference colours were picked and 12 vectors heading towards the blue-yellow region of the L*a*b* colour space (pertaining to the colour shifts noticed with the Microtile displays). A uniform reference colour was presented in three of the four quadrants on the CRT monitor and one quadrant changed colour in the direction of the sampled vector. An adaptive, four alternate forced choice procedure was employed to determine thresholds for each of the 3 reference colours. The adaptive technique used was a ZEST paradigm. In the second part of the perceptibility experiment, eighteen directions were sampled around each reference colour. The rating task was based on simulating the measured attenuations of the Microtile primaries on complex scenes. Subjects rated the images both in terms of acceptability/unacceptability and as percentage image degradation. The simulation was presented on three static complex images, car, landscape and portrait. A total of 60 subjects participated in the study, 20 subjects for each experiment. All subjects were between the age group of 15 to 35 years of age and underwent battery of colour vision tests before being included in the study. All subjects included had average to superior colour discrimination as categorized using the FM-100 Hue discrimination test. Results Study1: The preliminary study on Microtile display characteristics as a function of viewing angle showed that all the three primaries decreased in luminance with change in viewing angle. The red primary decreased at a faster rate compared to the other two primaries. The trend presents as a decrease in luminance with the hue shifting towards the blue-green region of the CIE1974 L*a*b* space. Study 2: Results from both the first and second parts of the perceptibility experiment showed that the vectors sampled in different directions approximated to ellipsoids in the L*a*b* colour space. This finding was consistent with the colour discrimination literature. Vectors on the equi-luminance plane were significantly longer than the vectors on the non equi-Luminance plane. Results showed that the average perceptibility thresholds in the non equi-luminance direction were lower than 1∆ELab¬¬¬¬. Study 3: Results from the rating experiments showed that irrespective of the complexities in the images, distortions greater than five times thresholds were less than 50% acceptable and were rated to be at least 30% degraded. This corresponds to a viewing angle greater than 10o for a Microtile display. The relationship between the stimulus (ΔE) and subjective Image degradation judgements followed a linear relationship, with the portrait and landscape having similar functions, whereas the car was rated more degraded at lower ΔEs and less degraded at higher ΔEs compared with the other two scenes. Conclusion Perceptibility thresholds for different reference colours showed that the conventionally used calibration precision of 1 ΔELab is a lenient criterion. Perceptibility thresholds are at least 25% less for the Microtile display reference condition. From the results of the rating data a distortion greater than five times thresholds is less than 50% acceptable and appears to be at least 30% degraded for static complex images. However, the image quality judgments appear to be related to scene context, which requires further study.

This study investigated color discrimination as a possible localized function of right or left cerebral hemispheres in humans. Previous studies have shown conflicting results. Studies implicating the left hemisphere have contaminated color discrimination with verbal-symbolic ability. Other studies implicating the right hemisphere emphasized color-matching ability. This study pointed out the importance of response latency as well as accuracy and also the importance of testing the data for meeting the assumptions of the statistical technique utilized. It was concluded that color discrimination is normally a right-hemisphere function in right-handed individuals. Differences in individual ability, although large, were not found to be systematically related to sex or eye dominance, but may be learned individual differences. The study further pointed out the inappropriateness of referring to a major or dominant cerebral hemisphere without stipulating which function is being considered.

A procedure in which the S- was prevented from being responded to, by electro-magnets, was used to establish color discriminations. The procedure was modified in Situation 1, to include the prevention of responses to the S+ if the S- was responded to first. The original procedure and modified procedure were used in Situation 1, with only the modified procedure being used in Situations 2 and 3. The procedure of reinforcing responses to the S+ and extinguishing responses to the S-, through nonreinforcement, was used in Situation 4. Data recorded consisted of the number of trials, the number of reinforcements, and which stimulus was first responded to. Criteria for the acquisition of a discrimination was 100 first responses to the S+. Results indicated that the modified procedure was much more effective in establishing the discriminations, than the original procedure or the procedure of reinforcing responses to the S+ and extinguishing responses to the S-. The modified procedure enhanced the establishment of stimulus control, reduced the number of errors and eliminated stereotyped responses.

Objetivo. Avaliação da visão de cores de dois grupos experimentais: diabéticos tipo 2 (DM2) sem retinopatia (n=32) e, intoxicados por vapor de mercúrio (Hg) (n=18); e seus respectivos grupos controles (n=23; n=18). Foram reconstruídos os espaços de cores dos indivíduos e dos grupos (DM2, Hg e controles) e, a partir dos mesmos, foram avaliadas as compressões nos eixos verde-vermelho (RG) e azul-amarelo (BY). Método. Os testes D-15 e D-15d foram aplicados em seu procedimento tradicional nos grupos experimentais e controles. Em seguida, os testes foram aplicados em procedimento triádico. Nesse procedimento, as peças foram apresentadas em trios e, o sujeito deveria separar a mais distante (‘odd-one-out’). Os resultados obtidos das relações de similaridade e dissimilaridade foram analisados individualmente por um procedimento de escala multidimensional (mds) não-métrica. Os espaços de cores foram reconstruídos para os indivíduos e os grupos e, representados em forma bi-dimensional, onde as dimensões correspondem aos eixos RG e BY dos sistemas de oponência perceptual. Resultados. Comparados aos respectivos grupos controles, o procedimento tradicional do teste D-15d foi diferente significativamente para a média dos olhos do grupo DM2 (p= 0,27) e do grupo Hg (p= 0,0003). As reduções na visão de cores foram predominantes no eixo BY. Para o grupo DM2, foi encontrada uma correlação negativa entre o desempenho nos testes de visão de cores e o tempo de diagnóstico (R= 0,56, p= 0,001). Na reconstrução dos espaços de cores dos grupos experimentais, as perdas se apresentaram em ambos os eixos, RG e BY, classificadas como difusas. A análise quantitativa dos espaços de cores foi obtida pelo cálculo dos resíduos dos eixos RG e BY dos grupos DM2 e Hg em relação aos respectivos grupos controles. Os valores encontrados para a média dos olhos foram 0,18 (RG) e 0,20 (BY) para o grupo DM2 e, 0,10 (RG) e 0,19 (BY) para o grupo Hg. Na comparação dos resultados entre os grupos experimentais, houve uma maior diferença entre os eixos RG e BY para o grupo Hg. Discussão. Os resultados confirmam os achados de perdas difusas na visão de cores de pacientes DM2 sem retinopatia. Os resultados também confirmam as perdas em pacientes intoxicados por vapor de mercúrio com, no mínimo, mais de um ano de afastamento da fonte de intoxicação e, sugerem a não-reversibilidade da visão de cores. Embora o procedimento tradicional tenha apresentado diferença significativa em relação aos controles, seus resultados sugerem perdas no eixo BY enquanto os espaços de cores sugerem perdas também no eixo RG, caracterizando perdas difusas. Conclusão. A reconstrução dos espaços de cores pode, junto à fundoscopia, colaborar no monitoramento da DM2. No caso da intoxicação por mercúrio, os espaços podem complementar os estudos da possível não-reversibilidade da visão de cores e, gerar mais informações para o estabelecimento de índices mais seguros de exposição crônica ao vapor de mercúrio. O procedimento triádico, além de pouco dispendioso, pode ser utilizado para representar a discriminação cromática e sugere ser mais sensível que o procedimento tradicional. / Purpose. Color vision was examined in two groups of patients, one group with diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2) without retinopathy (n=32) and a second group with chronic exposure to mercury vapour (Hg) (n=18), as well as in the respective age-matched controls (n=23; n=18) in order to reconstruct their color spaces. We assessed the type and degree of distortions of individual and group color spaces. Method. The experimental groups and age-matched controls were tested using the D-15 and the D-15d tests. In addition, subsets of caps from both tests were employed in a triadic procedure. Matrices of inter-cap subjective dissimilarities were estimated from each subject’s ‘odd-one-out’ choices, and processed using non-metric multidimensional scaling (mds). Two-dimensional color spaces, individual and group (DM2; Hg and control groups), were reconstructed with the axes interpreted as the red-green (RG) and blue-yellow (BY) perceptual opponent systems. Results. In the traditional procedure, the patients results were significantly different from the age-matched control groups for the D-15d test for the mean eyes in the DM2 group (p= 0.027) and in the Hg group (p= 0.0003). The losses in the D15d were concentrated in the BY axis. In the color space analysis color configurations for both groups were compressed along both the RG and BY dimensions. These losses are therefore classified as diffuse. For the quantitative analysis, the residuals were calculated in comparison to controls for the group color spaces. Values for the mean eyes were 0.18 (RG) and 0.20 (BY) for DM2 group, and were 0.10 (RG) and 0.19 (BY) for Hg group. Comparing the results between experimental groups, the degree of compression in the Hg group shows a greater difference in the magnitude of losses between the RG and BY dimension. For DM2, there was a negative correlation between the color vision performance and the time of diagnosis (R= 0.56, p= 0.001). Discussion. The present findings are in agreement with earlier studies demonstrating diffuse losses in early stages of DM2. They also confirm that color vision is impaired in patients with long-term vapour mercury intoxication and suggested that Hg intoxication may not be totally reversible. Since the triadic procedure shows losses in both the RG and BY axes while the traditional procedure shows only BY deficiencies, we consider that the triadic procedure is more sensitive. Conclusion. Along with fundoscopy, individual color spaces may serve for monitoring early functional changes in DM2 and thereby to support a treatment strategy. In case of mercury intoxication, the reconstruction of color spaces may contribute to researches in this field in order to evaluate the possible non-reversible intoxication and gives additive data for the necessity to establish more security indices of occupational mercury exposure. The proposed method of testing uses color spaces to represent discrimination, providing an opportunity for more differentiated diagnosis of the type and the severity of color vision loss.

Objetivo. Avaliação da visão de cores de dois grupos experimentais: diabéticos tipo 2 (DM2) sem retinopatia (n=32) e, intoxicados por vapor de mercúrio (Hg) (n=18); e seus respectivos grupos controles (n=23; n=18). Foram reconstruídos os espaços de cores dos indivíduos e dos grupos (DM2, Hg e controles) e, a partir dos mesmos, foram avaliadas as compressões nos eixos verde-vermelho (RG) e azul-amarelo (BY). Método. Os testes D-15 e D-15d foram aplicados em seu procedimento tradicional nos grupos experimentais e controles. Em seguida, os testes foram aplicados em procedimento triádico. Nesse procedimento, as peças foram apresentadas em trios e, o sujeito deveria separar a mais distante (‘odd-one-out’). Os resultados obtidos das relações de similaridade e dissimilaridade foram analisados individualmente por um procedimento de escala multidimensional (mds) não-métrica. Os espaços de cores foram reconstruídos para os indivíduos e os grupos e, representados em forma bi-dimensional, onde as dimensões correspondem aos eixos RG e BY dos sistemas de oponência perceptual. Resultados. Comparados aos respectivos grupos controles, o procedimento tradicional do teste D-15d foi diferente significativamente para a média dos olhos do grupo DM2 (p= 0,27) e do grupo Hg (p= 0,0003). As reduções na visão de cores foram predominantes no eixo BY. Para o grupo DM2, foi encontrada uma correlação negativa entre o desempenho nos testes de visão de cores e o tempo de diagnóstico (R= 0,56, p= 0,001). Na reconstrução dos espaços de cores dos grupos experimentais, as perdas se apresentaram em ambos os eixos, RG e BY, classificadas como difusas. A análise quantitativa dos espaços de cores foi obtida pelo cálculo dos resíduos dos eixos RG e BY dos grupos DM2 e Hg em relação aos respectivos grupos controles. Os valores encontrados para a média dos olhos foram 0,18 (RG) e 0,20 (BY) para o grupo DM2 e, 0,10 (RG) e 0,19 (BY) para o grupo Hg. Na comparação dos resultados entre os grupos experimentais, houve uma maior diferença entre os eixos RG e BY para o grupo Hg. Discussão. Os resultados confirmam os achados de perdas difusas na visão de cores de pacientes DM2 sem retinopatia. Os resultados também confirmam as perdas em pacientes intoxicados por vapor de mercúrio com, no mínimo, mais de um ano de afastamento da fonte de intoxicação e, sugerem a não-reversibilidade da visão de cores. Embora o procedimento tradicional tenha apresentado diferença significativa em relação aos controles, seus resultados sugerem perdas no eixo BY enquanto os espaços de cores sugerem perdas também no eixo RG, caracterizando perdas difusas. Conclusão. A reconstrução dos espaços de cores pode, junto à fundoscopia, colaborar no monitoramento da DM2. No caso da intoxicação por mercúrio, os espaços podem complementar os estudos da possível não-reversibilidade da visão de cores e, gerar mais informações para o estabelecimento de índices mais seguros de exposição crônica ao vapor de mercúrio. O procedimento triádico, além de pouco dispendioso, pode ser utilizado para representar a discriminação cromática e sugere ser mais sensível que o procedimento tradicional. / Purpose. Color vision was examined in two groups of patients, one group with diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2) without retinopathy (n=32) and a second group with chronic exposure to mercury vapour (Hg) (n=18), as well as in the respective age-matched controls (n=23; n=18) in order to reconstruct their color spaces. We assessed the type and degree of distortions of individual and group color spaces. Method. The experimental groups and age-matched controls were tested using the D-15 and the D-15d tests. In addition, subsets of caps from both tests were employed in a triadic procedure. Matrices of inter-cap subjective dissimilarities were estimated from each subject’s ‘odd-one-out’ choices, and processed using non-metric multidimensional scaling (mds). Two-dimensional color spaces, individual and group (DM2; Hg and control groups), were reconstructed with the axes interpreted as the red-green (RG) and blue-yellow (BY) perceptual opponent systems. Results. In the traditional procedure, the patients results were significantly different from the age-matched control groups for the D-15d test for the mean eyes in the DM2 group (p= 0.027) and in the Hg group (p= 0.0003). The losses in the D15d were concentrated in the BY axis. In the color space analysis color configurations for both groups were compressed along both the RG and BY dimensions. These losses are therefore classified as diffuse. For the quantitative analysis, the residuals were calculated in comparison to controls for the group color spaces. Values for the mean eyes were 0.18 (RG) and 0.20 (BY) for DM2 group, and were 0.10 (RG) and 0.19 (BY) for Hg group. Comparing the results between experimental groups, the degree of compression in the Hg group shows a greater difference in the magnitude of losses between the RG and BY dimension. For DM2, there was a negative correlation between the color vision performance and the time of diagnosis (R= 0.56, p= 0.001). Discussion. The present findings are in agreement with earlier studies demonstrating diffuse losses in early stages of DM2. They also confirm that color vision is impaired in patients with long-term vapour mercury intoxication and suggested that Hg intoxication may not be totally reversible. Since the triadic procedure shows losses in both the RG and BY axes while the traditional procedure shows only BY deficiencies, we consider that the triadic procedure is more sensitive. Conclusion. Along with fundoscopy, individual color spaces may serve for monitoring early functional changes in DM2 and thereby to support a treatment strategy. In case of mercury intoxication, the reconstruction of color spaces may contribute to researches in this field in order to evaluate the possible non-reversible intoxication and gives additive data for the necessity to establish more security indices of occupational mercury exposure. The proposed method of testing uses color spaces to represent discrimination, providing an opportunity for more differentiated diagnosis of the type and the severity of color vision loss.

The rise of organometal halide perovskite materials with extremely intriguing properties have opened a new horizon in the design of high speed and low price optoelectronic devices. The bandgap in the crystalline structure of these materials can be easily tuned for various applications and their dominant non-excitonic dynamics eliminate the requirement of a bulk or heterostructure for charge carrier separation. These unique properties increase the photo-sensitivity of perovskite-based optoelectronics and provide them with a low time constant, resulting in high precision fast devices. Realization of perovskite-based devices translates directly to inexpensive and simplified architectures of optoelectronic systems. In perovskite-based devices, costly silicon or wide bandgap semiconductor fabrication technology is largely replaced by solution processable methods. Their bandgap tunability allows the reduction of the required optical accessories and interconnects in optoelectronic components. For instance, a tuned perovskite-based detector can substitute a narrowband detecting system consisting of a conventional detector and its required optical accessories such as lenses and color filters. These properties of perovskite-based devices lead to the realization of inexpensive, low power and high-performance optoelectronic systems. In this work, the design of a narrowband, low noise, high performance and stable photodetector based on organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite structure is proposed. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the device would be in the nanometer range. The response of the device can be tuned using either different ratios of the lead salts or synthetic dyes (macromolecules) in the crystalline structure for color discrimination in machine vision and imaging applications. Non-excitonic photocarrier generation, tunability of the optical bandgap and low voltage requirements for charge carrier generation are the keys to the utility of this optoelectronic device. The goals of this project were to identify the required functional materials (lead salts and synthetic dyes based on their molecular structures) and optimize their performance; the study of their effect on the charge collection narrowing mechanism and bandwidth specifications defined for detectivity, linear dynamic range (LDR) and photoresponse speed. To achieve these goals, it was proposed to study the light detection properties as well as spectroscopic and semiconductor parameter characteristics of fabricated devices. The design considerations of such devices are versatile and may be modulated for different applications.

It is widely accepted that color is perceived categorically. Categorical perception of color can be defined as the tendency to discriminate colors that are from different categories easier, quicker and more accurately than colors that are from the same category. The present study investigated whether brain activity patterns verifies the concept of categorical color perception, an instantiation of top-down influences on low-level perception. Participants performed a color discrimination task on color pairs. Three categories of color pairs are defined in the green-blue region as follows. One of the pairs was specified as cross-category pair by choosing one color from green side of the green-blue boundary and the other color from blue side. The other two pairs were featured as within-category pairs by choosing two shades of green for within-green pair and two shades of blue for within-blue pair. Crucially, the pairs varied only in hue dimension and the physical distance between each of three pairs was set to 10 degrees in CIE LCh space. Pairs on the screen are displayed adjacently or with gaps in between, to further investigate the effect of space in color discrimination. Correct responses, reaction times and fMRI BOLD signals are recorded. Behavioral findings yielded a decrementing pattern from green to blue region challenging the prediction of categorical perception argument that performance is better at green-blue boundary than both within green and blue regions. Behavioral findings also indicated that adjacent display of colors facilitated color discrimination when compared to display of colors with spatial gaps. Brain activity patterns indicated that separate neural processes might underlie these distinct behavioral differences. Although standardized with respect to the color metric, the three categories of our experiment might have involved differences with respect to difficulty levels and memory requirements. Brain activity differences reported in the within-green condition versus cross-category condition are focused on Frontal Eye Fields and Fusiform Gyrus, which is seem to be modulated by Frontal Eye Field activity / increased activation in these regions is related to enhanced visual performance and higher scores, which is consistent with significantly better performance in within-green discrimination than cross-category discrimination. For the same contrast, Parahippocampal Gyrus and Precuneus activations suggest better visual recall and behavioral improvement due to more efficient maintenance in spatial working memory for within-green discrimination than cross-category discrimination. Brain activity differences reported in the within-blue condition versus cross-category condition is focused on Superior Temporal Gyrus, which is involved in color discrimination having the role of color memory. When within-green and within-blue conditions are compared, there was differential activation in the Fusiform Gyrus, and this is the only brain activity which might be attributed to a categorical effect. This comparison also yielded activity in Medial Frontal and Superior Frontal regions concerning more confident perceptual decisions and improved performance on within-green discrimination than within-blue discrimination. In addition, spatial separation of stimuli entailed more cognitive resources to color discrimination than adjacent stimuli as suggested by Cuneus and Lingual Gyrus activations. Overall, to the best of our knowledge our study is the first to investigate the neural framework for color perception, which revealed that color perception might involve several complex sub-processes that activate memory and attention.

Color vision can affect our assumptions of an animals’ natural history. It can be determined by testing sensory or perception ability, which was employed here. Two Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinerea), of opposite sexes, housed at ZooAtlanta, were trained via operant conditioning to discriminate stimuli within 7 tasks, primarily in a two-choice fashion. Varying shades of the colors blue, green and red were tested against varying greys, all which differed in intensity, served as the stimuli for the first 4 tasks. The remaining 3 tasks, the colors were tested against each other. The male reached criterion for the first 6 tasks, indicating an ability to discriminate the stimuli based on color. The female however participated only in 2, and could not achieve criterion as set, though there were indications of discrimination ability. Taken together with sensory work on two related otter species, Asian small-clawed otters possess color vision.

A presente dissertação objetiva avaliar a visão de cores dos pacientes com EM (com e sem queixas visuais), através de teste psicofísicos e a percepção de formas e espaço, através de testes neuropsicológicos, além de investigar a existência de correlação entre essas funções. Participaram da pesquisa um total de 35 pacientes (9 M e 27 F) com o diagnóstico de EM, com idades entre 18 e 60 anos (média 36,84±10,49), e nível de educação variado, e 36 controles com faixa etária e nível escolar equivalente. Os pacientes possuíam acuidade visual 20/20, ou melhor e foram divididos em dois grupos: um com neurite óptica (NO n=52) outro sem NO (n=17). Foram utilizados os testes: Cambridge Color Test (CCT) fase trivector e elipse, Judgment of line orientation (JLO), visual form discrination (VFD), Bateria de percepção visual de objeto e espaço (VOSP), e as Escalas de depressão e ansiedade de Beck. Os resultados mostram diferenças entre grupos (anova OneWay), nos três eixos analisados (protan, deutan e tritan) e nas áreas das elipses em todos os grupos, (p0,005) indicando que a visão de cores está prejudicada em ambos os sistemas de oponência, sendo que a ocorrência de NO está associada a maior prejuízo, mas há perda da visão de cores mesmo na ausência de NO. Dos olhos sem NO 52% possui áreas das elipses normais (27/52), 27% possui deficiência difusa (14/52), 13% no eixo tritan (7/52), 6% no eixo protan (3/52) e 2% no deutan (1/52), indicando que a incidência de prejuízo difuso é maior entre estes pacientes. Dos olhos com NO, somente 18% (3/17) possui área das elipses dentro da normalidade, 34% possui deficiência no eixo deutan (6/17), 18% deficiência nos eixos protan e difusa (3/17) e 12% no eixo tritan (2/17), indicando que a incidência de prejuízo no eixo verde-vermelho é maior. Existe diferença estatística (kruskal-Wallis) nos testes VOSP2 entre os grupos CT x EM e CT x NO, no VOSP3 entre os grupos CT x NO e EM x NO e no VOSP8 entre os grupos CT x EM (p0,005), indicando que tanto a via de percepção de objeto, forma e cor (parvo), quanto à via de percepção de espaço estão comprometidas. Verificamos aumento da perda de visão de cores, com o aumento da idade, nos paciente com EM, nos eixos tritan (CT 1,53±0,27 EM 2,97±0,75) e deutan (CT 0,61±0,13 EM 1,35±0,53), indicando que a EM, intensifica a perda da visão de cores com o aumento da idade. Existe correlação entre o eixo tritan e os testes de percepção de objetos, VOSP3 e discriminação visual de formas, além do testes VOSP8 de percepção de espaço. No eixo deutan encontramos correlações com os testes decisão de objetos (VOSP3) e análise de cubos (p0,005). / To assess color vision, form and space perception in patients with clinical diagnosis of multiple sclerosis, with or without history of optic neuritis. Methods: We evaluated 35 patients (27F; 9M; mean age = 36.84±10.49 years) with diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. All patients had visual acuity between 0 and 0.1 logMAR and presented no alterations in a complete ophthalmologic exam. We compared the results with 36 control subjects, matched in age and school level. Color discrimination was performed with Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) along the protan, deutan and tritan cone isolation axes. All patients were evaluated monocularly in both eyes. In neuropsychological evaluation, for space and form perception, we used Judgment of Line Orientation (JLO), Visual Form Discrimination (VFD), Visual Object and Space Perception Test (VOSP), and the depression and anxiety of Beck Scales. Results: Color discrimination measured in both groups differed significantly from the control group in all Trivector axes and in the ellipses areas (p < 0.005). Eyes with history of optic neuritis were associated whit larger damage. MS patients presented a progressive color discrimination impairment with age (along the deutan and tritan axes) that was almost two times faster than controls, even in the absence of ON. In neuropsychological evaluation, MS group presented statistical differences from control group in VOSP silhouettes, objects and cubs tests (p0,005). Conclusions: Most of the central visual functions were impaired in patients with ME, who had no impairment in visual acuity. Episodes of optic neuritis are a factor that increases the chance of reduction in color discrimination. Correlations between color vision and neuropsychological evaluation suggest that losses in chromatic discrimination leads to damage in neuropsychological tests performance. These findings suggest that demyelinating diseases intensify the loss of colors vision with age and reduce sensitivity to color vision in both red-green and blue-yellow axes, implying impairment in both parvocellular and koniocellular visual pathways as well as dorsal and ventral pathways, according to results in neuropsychological tests. Key words: Multiple Sclerosis, Color Vision, Neuropsychological Tests