L'application de la théorie du droit des brevets à l'innovation en biotechnologies humaines révèle certaines fragilités et pose de nombreux problèmes, au regard des composantes techniques et éthiques de sa protection Juridique. Au plan technique, la condition d'une invention en particulier, longtemps laissée de côté par la doctrine et par la jurisprudence, se trouve rappelée aux États-Unis, dans le secteur des biotechnologies humaines, comme une condition essentielle. Au plan éthique, les biotechnologies humaines, porteuses d'immenses espoirs. suscitent en même temps qu'une fascination certaine, la crainte de dérives qui échapperaient au contrôle des institutions compétentes. Les exclusions éthiques à la brevetabilité sont un moyen de les appréhender. A la lumière d'une approche comparative entre le droit européen et le droit américain, à titre principal, faisant état du droit français à titre d'illustration du droit européen, la, réflexion dans ce travail porte sur les limites des exceptions et des exclusions, techniques et éthiques, à la brevetabilité des inventions en biotechnologies humaines, et formule quelques pistes de réflexion. Face à la menace de blocages de la recherche par l'effet des brevets en biotechnologies humaines, largement alléguée dans ce champ de recherche, certains partent à la conquête de modèles alternatifs de gestion collective de l'innovation. La théorie économique des communs, dont la transposition à la sphère juridique concernée par les ressources immatérielles, se révèle, à cet égard, particulièrement prometteuse à la lumière des biotechnologies humaines et peut permettre d'unifier juridiquement ce foisonnement d'initiatives. / Applying the patent law theory to innovation in the field of human biotechnology highlights weaknesses and raises multiple issues related to the technical and ethical elements of its legal protection. In terms of technique, a recent change in United States Law is shedding light on the condition of invention, now considered an essential condition, after being long disregarded by doctrine and case law. In terms of ethics, though fascinating and raising high hopes and great expectations. human biotechnology concurrently gives rise to the fear of possible drifts that might elude the control of competent institutions. Ethical exclusions from patentability are one solution to ward them off. Comparing American and European law, illustrated by a reference to French law, this study focuses on the limitations of technical and ethical exceptions and exclusions from the patentability of human biotechnology inventions and suggests some further lines of thought. Facing the threat of possible research deadlocks induced by human biotechnology patents, largely invoked in this research field, alternative models of collective innovation management are. being sought. Transposed to the legal sphere delving into the issue of immaterial resources, the economic theory of the Commons applied to human biotechnology appears as highly promising and could result in a legal unification of this profusion of initiatives.

Le concept de Responsabilité Sociale des Entreprises (RSE), tout en faisant l’objet de débats sur ses contours (s’agit-il uniquement d’actions volontaires allant au-delà des exigences légales ? ou y a-t-il des implications réglementaires ?), soulève un intérêt croissant en Afrique depuis les années 2000, a fortiori dans les pays où la puissance publique ne parvient pas à assurer un niveau satisfaisant de fourniture en services sociaux de base ou à faire respecter le droit existant. L’analyse économique considère en général ces actions comme une forme d’internalisation volontaire des externalités d’une entreprise, ce qui présuppose un principe contesté de substituabilité entre éléments naturels (assimilés à du « capital naturel », à la différence du concept de « patrimoine »), et ne tient pas compte du fait que le périmètre impacté par une action de RSE ne se limite pas nécessairement à celui envisagé lors de sa conception (pensée comme une action bénéficiant à un type d’acteur interne ou externe à l'entreprise, elle peut avoir un impact sur d’autres acteurs). En outre, les effets peuvent être mixtes (par exemple, négatif en parallèle des bienfaits attendus). Évaluer l’effet des actions de RSE implique donc de chercher à prendre en compte leur possible « double-effet » (i.e. saisir les différentes dimensions de leur impact, sans se limiter aux seuls effets positifs préalablement recherchés), en intégrant l’analyse dans une approche multi-niveaux (afin de s’intéresser aux différentes échelles d’interactions concernées). Cette thèse cherche à mener une telle évaluation pour la filière banane d’exportation du Cameroun, où l’on assiste au déploiement récent et important d’actions de RSE, et propose une analyse globale des dispositifs mis en œuvre par les entreprises du secteur, en nous situant en particulier par rapport à la gestion collective, sur le territoire, de la ressource foncière – liée au core business de toute agro-industrie. La thèse mobilise l’outillage méthodologique développé par Elinor Ostrom et le Bloomington Workshop, qui permet d’analyser le processus décisionnel et les effets structurels induits, après l’avoir enrichi pour le rendre opératoire pour l’étude d’un tel objet de recherche : notamment prendre en compte le contexte camerounais de corruption systémique et la forte conflictualité observée dans la gestion du foncier agricole. Pour en « révéler » la grammaire institutionnelle, cette opérationnalisation implique de stabiliser certains concept-clés : la thèse propose donc des clarifications conceptuelles sur la caractérisation des types de systèmes de ressource, sur les conditions nécessaires à un commun et donc sur les différentes façons d’appréhender le foncier en fonction du système de ressource considéré et du mode de gestion mis en place à telle ou telle échelle. La thèse analyse ensuite l’histoire et les modalités d’appropriation foncière dans les territoires bananiers du Cameroun, afin d’expliciter la grammaire institutionnelle qui régit les règles de gestion de la ressource foncière de l’un d’eux (le Moungo), dont la comparaison avec l’idéaltype du commun permet de proposer une évaluation systémique des dispositifs RSE observés. Enfin, le relevé méthodique des indices de modification des rapports sociaux dans et autour de l’entreprise, en analysant l’impact sur les modes de régulation sociale de ces dispositifs (dont la certification Fairtrade ou la multiplication d’actions sociales à destination des communautés riveraines), amène à conclure que cet effet s’apparente à du « néopaternalisme », par lequel se diffuse une forme de gouvernementalité managériale : les bénéfices matériels de certains dispositifs RSE pour les ouvriers et les populations locales ont ainsi pour corollaire une réduction de leurs capabilities – et donc une réduction des possibilités d’action face aux problèmes environnementaux et sociaux que peut leur poser l’activité agro-industrielle étudiée. / Assessing Corporate Social Responsability (CSR) implies to investigateempirically the operations implemented and, at the territorial level, to characterizetheir structural impacts beyond the effects initially targeted. Our research carriesout such an assessment for the banana sector in Cameroon. It draws onmethodological tools that Elinor Ostrom has set up by studying commons, thenadjusted to a context of systemic corruption. As a result, we show : how conflictson a key resource use and appropriation (land) have arised in history and areframed by specific sets of rules in use ; to what extent the CSR operations wehave assessed (Fairtrade labels, health and education aid…) result in materialimprovements for workers and neighbouring communities while reducing theircapabilities to face environmental and social issues generated by the banana agroindustry.Then we explain why the way firms’ governements steers structuralchanges in the social group addressed by their CSR operations can qualify for‘neopaternalism’ and ‘managerial governmentality’.

Esta tese tem como tema o conjunto de recursos comuns naturais e os formatos de gestão que permitem novos sistemas de governança nos espaços rurais no entorno de áreas protegidas. Como questão central, busca responder como os diversos atores afetados pelo processo de criação de uma área protegida organizam-se e desenvolvem ações coletivas para a gestão dos recursos comuns no entorno destas áreas. Têm-se como hipótese que há uma aproximação entre os atores conforme seus objetivos em relação aos recursos comuns naturais, o que remete a configuração de um novo sistema de governança que propicia o desenvolvimento de ações coletivas próprias de gestão dos recursos comuns. Outra hipótese é que a ação do Estado, por meio de políticas governamentais, apresenta efeito limitado na coordenação das ações e na promoção do consenso entre os atores. Desta forma, o objetivo deste trabalho é estudar a ação coletiva dos atores sociais na gestão dos recursos comuns no entorno do Parque Nacional da Serra da Bodoquena (PNSB), o qual abrange áreas dos municípios de Bodoquena, Bonito, Jardim e Porto Murtinho no Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul. Por meio da abordagem institucional no estudo da auto-organização e autogovernança em situações de gestão do conjunto de recursos comuns desenvolvida por Elinor Ostrom, buscou-se a fundamentação teórica para explicação dos fenômenos e problemática identificada. Metodologicamente trata-se de uma pesquisa de campo e documental, a qual apresenta um delineamento de estudo de caso small-N, aplicando-se o framework para análise de sistemas sócio-ecológicos (SES), procedendo-se também uma sistemática análise documental próxima à meta-análise. Conclui-se que a esperada mobilização de grupos de indivíduos em busca de objetivos comuns encontra duas vertentes neste caso, com os participantes da arena de ação criando distintos objetivos e distintas ações coletivas de acordo com seus interesses, produtivos ou ambientais, sendo que governo dos comuns permanece sob o controle dos interesses produtivistas arraigados na cultura de produção agropecuária local. / This thesis has as its theme the common natural resources and the management models that allow new governance systems in the rural areas in the surrounding of protected areas. As central question, seeks to answer how the various actors affected by the process of creation of a protected area organise themselves and develop collective actions for the management of common natural resources in the surroundings of this area. There has been hypothesised that there is a closeness among the actors as their goals in relation to common natural resources, which refers to setting up a new governance system that promotes the development of collective actions specific to the management of common resources. Another hypothesis is that state action, through government policies, has limited effect on the coordination and promotion toward a consensus among actors. In this sense, the objective of this work is to study the collective action of social actors in the management of common natural resources in the surroundings of the National Park of Serra da Bodoquena (PNSB), which covers areas of the municipalities of Bodoquena, Bonito, Jardim and Porto Murtinho in the State of Mato Grosso do Sul. Based on institutional approach for the study of the self-organisation and self-governance in common-pool resources situations developed by Elinor Ostrom, the investigation sought the theoretical explanation of phenomena and problem identified. Methodologically this is a documentary and field research, which has a feature of small-N case of study, proceeding an applying of the framework for analysing social-ecological systems (SES), conducting also a systematic analysis of documents close to a meta-analysis. The conclusions point out that the expected mobilisation of groups of individuals in the pursuit of common goals is twofold in this case, with the participants of the action arena creating different goals and different collective actions according to their interests, environmental or productive, and that the govern of the commons remains under the control of agribusiness interests rooted in the culture of the local agricultural production.

Esta tese investiga as relações entre os bens comuns intelectuais e a mercantilização, e os efeitos dessas relações, principalmente para o universo da educação. Seus objetivos centrais são: apresentar as principais teorias sobre bens comuns, e avaliá-las quanto à capacidade de detectar e equacionar essas relações, e quanto à adequação para abordar bens comuns intelectuais; analisar se bens comuns e mercantilização são incompatíveis, e até que ponto podem coexistir; verificando, em casos existentes de novos modelos de negócio que envolvem o compartilhamento de bens intelectuais, se a mercantilização pode surgir a partir de bens comuns intelectuais, e indicando, em caso positivo, se o saldo resultante de compartilhamento e mercantilização nesses diferentes modelos é socialmente positivo ou não. A análise da mercantilização é feita de uma perspectiva conceitual (baseada em Marx e Polanyi) e histórica, abordando a transição do feudalismo ao capitalismo (e sua relação com o cercamento dos bens comuns), a ascensão do neoliberalismo, e o avanço de mecanismos específicos de mercantilização de bens intelectuais (a propriedade intelectual e os sistemas de travas tecnológicas). A análise das teorias de bens comuns centra-se numa leitura crítica da corrente mais consolidada: a neoinstitucionalista, formada em torno dos trabalhos de Elinor Ostrom; avalia-se seus principais méritos (a refutação empírica da noção da tragédia dos comuns; e a identificação dos design principles frequentes em bens comuns longevos), pressupostos (como o individualismo metodológico e a teoria da escolha racional) e limitações (como pontos cegos em relação a poder e desigualdade, e a restrição à escala local). Discute-se ainda autores que apresentam abordagens alternativas, como aqueles mais próximos ao marxismo (e, em particular, Hardt & Negri), e as complementaridades e contrapontos que oferecem à corrente neoinstitucionalista, particularmente quanto às limitações nela identificadas. Em relação à aplicação dessas teorias a bens intelectuais, detecta-se a ampla influência da categorização econômica de bens (utilizada na corrente neoinstitucionalista), e argumenta-se pela necessidade de uma categorização mais dialética; recomenda-se ainda uma nova abordagem para o princípio das fronteiras. Discute-se as relações da educação com a mercantilização e os bens comuns, apontando os efeitos de ambos sobre as possibilidades de acesso e apropriação de bens intelectuais. Por fim, a tese apresenta e analisa cinco casos relacionados a novos modelos de negócio que envolvem compartilhamento de bens intelectuais. Conclui-se que em todos eles há a possibilidade de surgimento de mercantilização, de diversas formas, mas que o saldo resultante de mercantilização e compartilhamento varia; esses casos são, do melhor ao pior saldo: o crowdfunding (em que pode ocorrer mercantilização dos serviços de intermediação); o acesso aberto ouro (em que há mercantilização do espaço de publicação, que assume forma particularmente nociva nos periódicos predatórios); dois casos ligados à participação de empresas no desenvolvimento do software livre (o Android e os patches ck, em que os projetos podem ser direcionados na gestão e pelo custeio de modo a favorecer estrategias comerciais de empresas); e a publicidade comportamental online (em que ocorre uma mercantilização de segunda ordem: a da audiência). / This thesis investigates the relations between intellectual commons and commodification, and the effects of these relations, particularly for the domain of education. Its main objectives are: presenting the main theories about commons, and evaluating them regarding their capacity to detect and account for these relations, and regarding their adequacy to approach intellectual goods; analyzing whether commons and commodification are incompatible and up to which point they can coexist; verifying, in existing cases of new business models around the sharing of intellectual goods, if commodification can spring from within intellectual commons, and if so indicating whether the resulting balance of sharing and commodification in those different models is socially positive. The analysis of commodification is made from a conceptual perspective (based on Marx and Polanyi) and a historical one, by addressing the transition from feudalism to capitalism (and its relationship with the enclosure of the commons), the rise of neoliberalism, and the advances in mechanisms for commodification of intellectual goods (intellectual property and DRMs). The analysis of the theories about commons focuses on a critical reading of the more consolidated theoretical school: the neoinstitutionalist, formed around the work of Elinor Ostrom; its main merits are evaluated (the empirical refutation of the notion of the tragedy of the commons and the identification of design principles that are usual in long enduring commons), as well as its assumptions (such as methodological individualism and rational choice theory) and limitations (such as blind spots regarding power and inequality, and its restriction to the local scale). Authors who present alternative approaches are discussed, such as those related to Marxism (and in particular, Hardt & Negri), and the complementarities and counterpoints they offer to the neo-institutionalist schoolparticularly with regard to the limitations previously identified in itare mentioned. Regarding the application of these theories to intellectual goods, the thesis acknowledges the pervasive influence of the economic categorization of goods (used in the neo-institutionalist school), and argues for the need of a more dialectical categorization; it further recommends a new approach to the first design principle (boundaries). The linkages of education with commodification and commons are discussed, and the effects of both on the possibilities of access to and appropriation of intellectual goods are pointed out. Finally, the thesis presents and analyzes five cases related to new business models that involve sharing of intellectual goods. It is concluded that in all of them there is the possibility of the emergence of commodification, in various forms, but that the balance resulting from commodification and sharing varies; these cases are, from best to worst balance: crowdfunding (where commodification of intermediary services may occur); gold open access (where there is commodification of the publishing space, which assumes particularly harmful forms with predatory journals); two cases related to companies participation in free software development (Android and the ck patches, in which the projects can be directedthrough management and fundingto favor companies commercial strategies); and online behavioral advertising (where there occurs a commodification of second order occurs: the commodification of the audience).

Open Source och relaterade mjukvarukoncept och utvecklingsmodeller är vid det här laget allmänt bekanta och har varit föremål för många studier. Open Source Hardware är mindre spritt och studerat, och så även emergent teknologi som för in traditionellt industriella tekniker som 3D-printing, laserskärare, och CAD-baserade produktionsverktyg i mindre skala i hem- och hobbymiljöer. Dessa ämnen har främst studerats ur mer renodlat tekniska perspektiv, snarare än att sättas i samband i en vidare kontext. Denna kombinerar internet som infrastruktur och socialt medium för kunskaps- och resursdelning; open source-koncept; de möjligheter som tillgängligheten av mer och mer kapabel och överkomlig hårdvara byggd på öppen design bereder; och andra relaterade socio-tekniska fenomen vilka börjat framträda de senaste 5-10 åren. I denna uppsats undersöker jag denna större kontext. Uppsatsen har utförts i form av en litteraturstudie av existerande forskning inom ovanstående diskreta områden, och i den mån de finns även dess inbördes relationer. Denna kontext framträder som ett emergent paradigm kring produktion av hemelektronik, och även som exemplifierande trenden av teknologins fortsatta intåg som allestädes närvarande i våra liv och vår omgivning. Resultaten indikerar en gryende förändring i hur vi interagerar med teknik, vilka som gör det och varför, i vilka kontexter, och ett framträdande av en ny ekonomi. Jag visar på att ytterligare forskning behövs, och att perspektivet bör flyttas från att analyseras enbart i diskreta termer som teknik, open source-principer, DIY et cetera, utan även till vad som framstår som resultatet där dessa konvergerar, den naturliga konsekvensen av ett folkligt anammande av denna teknik och open source-koncept.

The commons is a concept increasingly used by practitioners and social activists with the promise of creating new collective wealth (Bollier & Helfrich, 2014; De Angelis, 2003; Hardt & Negri, 2009; Klein, 2001). In recent years, a variety of scholarly research explained the different ways of organizing commons (Van Laerhoven & Ostrom, 2007). To that end, many streams of inquiry have emerged in various areas: organization theory (Ansari et al. 2013; Fournier, 2013; Tedmanson et al. 2015), institutional economics (Hess, C. & Ostrom, 2011; Ostrom, 1990, 2005, 2010), political philosophy and legal studies (Dardot & Laval, 2014; Holder and Flessas, 2008; Hardt & Negri, 2009), nonprofit studies (Aligica, 2016; Bushouse et al. 2016; Lohmann, 2014, 2016) and business ethics (Argandoña, 1998; Melé, 2009, 2012; O’Brien, 2009; Sison & Fontrodona, 2012; Solomon, 2004). However, these different theories are usually conceived and used separately. Empirical research on commons has mainly focused on natural resources at local and global levels (Ansari et al. 2013; Cody et al. 2015; Cox & Ross, 2011; Galaz et al. 2012; Ostrom, 1990, 2010; Poteete et al. 2010), and also on digital and scientific resources (Benkler, 2006; Boyle, 2008; Cook‐Deegan & Dedeurwaerdere, 2006; Coriat, 2015; Hess & Ostrom, 2011). Despite a long research tradition in local community organizations, there is little empirical scientific knowledge that uses the lens of the commons to study shared resources that are neither natural nor informational in nature. This dissertation aims to fill these gaps by analyzing social finance services and organizations from an interdisciplinary perspective. The aim is to understand whether communities can create financial commons. By analyzing the processes involved, the dissertation sheds light on the social and institutional components enabling the creation of human-made commons. We focus on community organizations linked to the solidarity economy movement in Brazil. Such movement aims to promote socio-economic alternative organizations, especially for poverty alleviation and inequality reduction.More specifically, the dissertation identifies the nature of two kinds of shared financial resources––microcredit services and complementary currencies––and looks at the functioning of community arrangements that provide them, the community components mobilized for creating commons organizations, and the institutional work strategies developed by intermediary organizations to adjust the scale of these social finance services.The dissertation is structured in four chapters, each of which addresses different research questions and uses different methods and units of analysis. The first chapter is conceptual and based on a literature review on complementary currencies in order to identify the commons dimensions of seven complementary currency systems. The second chapter is an in-depth single case study of Banco Palmas, a Brazilian community bank. This chapter analyzes the transformative power of governance on private goods when managed by self-governed grassroots organizations. Chapter three is a comparative case study of five community banks that focuses on the community components involved in creating commons as a grassroots response to contested market and state institutions. The final chapter focuses on the diffusion and institutionalization of social finance in Brazil and the role played by five intermediary organizations in this process.Starting from the observation that there is no definition of financial commons, Chapter 1 – Money and the Commons: Lessons from Complementary Currencies – proposes to assess the commons dimensions of monetary systems created and managed by local organizations. Specifically, we investigate the organizational features of seven complementary currency systems by making use of two main theoretical frameworks that are usually separate: the new commons in organization studies and the common good in business ethics. The findings show that these alternative monetary systems and organizations promote the common interest through the creation of new communities and can therefore be considered as commons according to the common good framework. Nevertheless, only systems relying on collective action and self-management fulfill the new commons framework. This allows us to suggest two new categories of commons: “social commons”, which fulfills both the new commons and the common good frameworks, and the “commercial commons”, which that fulfill the common good but not the new commons framework. Building on this, we define an ethos of the commons as a principle that consists in organizing commons practices through both collective organization and ethical concern for human flourishing.Chapter 2 - A Case Study of Microfinance and Community Development Banks (CDBs) in Brazil: Private or Common Goods? - looks at how governance mechanisms of self-managed community organizations affect the characteristics of microcredit services. Based on field research in Brazil, this chapter uses Elinor Ostrom’s design principles of successful self-governing common-pool resource organizations to analyze community banks’ microcredit systems. Our results suggest that private goods could be altered when governed by community self-managed enterprises. They become hybrid goods because they mix the characteristics of private and common goods. This change is facilitated by specific organizational arrangements, such as self-governance, that emerge from grassroots dynamics and the creation of collective-choice arenas. These arrangements help strengthen the inclusion properties of nonprofit microcredit services.In order to identify what components enable commons creation, we conduct a comparative case study of five Brazilian community banks in Chapter 3 – Building Commons in Community Enterprise: The Case of Self-Managed Microfinance Organizations. We analyze how community enterprises create commons whereas market and state institutions reproduce exclusion and inequalities. Our results suggest that four components are required to establish a new organization of commons: collective decision-making, community social control, servant leadership, and desire for social change. Building on this, we develop a model of commons organization and explain why these organizations are substitutes for existing marginalizing institutions. This study contributes to the literature by examining new elements for commons creation and shedding light on the emergence of new institutional arrangements for social change. Finally, after looking at commons institutional arrangements at local level in communities, we examine how commons organizations diffuse, institutionalize and organize in networks for consolidating their activities. Chapter 4 - Institutional Change and Diffusion in Institutional Plurality: The Case of Brazil’s Solidarity Finance Sector – explains how intermediary organizations help in this process. More precisely, we analyze the institutional work strategies deployed by five intermediary organizations in the Brazilian plural institutional context, where autonomous local state agencies and banks influence community banks' activities. We show how intermediary organizations support the institutionalization of community development banks (CDBs) through diffusing these organizations in different communities, performing external institutional work with governments and public banks at national and local levels, and accomplishing internal institutional work through structuring CDBs and CDB networks. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

When on September 15, 2008 the financial conglomerate Lehman Brothers files for bankruptcy – and with that ‘officially’ sparks the international financial crisis – still few would anticipate the invasive effect this crisis would come to have on the professional and personal life of many across the world. Today, it’s implosion remains a mere ‘blip’ in the universe of events that followed. On closer observation, this financial turmoil started out as a ‘mortgage crisis’, largely fuelled by unsustainable or speculative investments in real-estate in cities across the world. In the run-up to the boom-and-bust of 2008, some – among them architects, urban designers, spatial practitioners, artists, activists, but also economists and others – started preparing for what they understood as (the necessity) of a different world to come, beyond the broken neo-liberal dogma. Today, fragments of such a different reality are unfolding in front of us. Modest, but for real. STEALTH.unlimited (practice of Ana Džokić and Marc Neelen) is one of the protagonists in this field, pointing to the responsibilities and capacities of architecture in contemporary societies, and acts between the fields of architecture, art and activism. With “Upscaling, Training, Commoning”, in 2011 they set on an expedition of sorts, to transform their practice. Following a decade of research addressing urgent cultural and urban issues ahead (resulting in publications, exhibitions, spatial interventions), now they use questions, doubts or limitations of such a practice as a lead towards direct long-term engagements with specific spatial process and/or communities. The resulting practice based exploration has been far away from a distant or objective research condition. It is subject to volatile political and economic situations, to conflicting interests or the engagements with(in) local communities encountered in the work. In this, three lines of exploration have been followed; that of the practice assuming new responsibilities, of the economies of engagement and disengagement, and that of the urban commons.   The title “Upscaling, Training, Commoning” relates to the awareness that the relevant activities and approaches need to be nurtured, and that the imperfect contexts in which this take place can be seen as ‘training grounds’ to arrive to practices of commoning. Hence, upscaling, training, commoning describes a trajectory (to be) taken. The artistic research (PhD) “Upscaling, Training, Commoning” concludes with a set of six books, and includes comments on the trajectory taken since 2008 by: the writer Dougald Hine, the economist Martijn Jeroen van der Linden, architects Ana Méndez de Andés and Iva Marčetić. The concluding book, set to words by the writer Paul Currion, features a fictional narrative, looking what the future could possibly hold, in which collective action might enable citizens to navigate through difficult times to create a new political economy.

Over the past few decades there have emerged greater possibilities for users and consumers of media to create or engage in the creation of digital media technologies. This PhD dissertation explores the ways in which the broadening of possibilities for making technologies, specifically software, has been taken advantage of by new producers of digital culture – freelancers, aspiring digital media creators and small studios – in the production of digital visual media. It is based on two empirical case studies that concern the making of free software for computer graphics animation production in two contexts: by a loose collective of anime fans in Siberia, Russia, and by a small animation studio in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The case studies are presented and analysed in the scope of four journal articles and one book chapter which form the core of the dissertation. The dissertation draws on a media practice perspective and an understanding of software as an artefact that concentrates and mediates specific infrastructural arrangements that entangle politics of technological production, economic interests and practice-related concerns. The analytical focus of the research problematises in particular practices of software decommodification and its further repair and development by non-programmers; the anchoring of software development and repair in actual production practices of computer graphics animations; and a commitment to sharing software, animations and other artefacts online as commons. The thesis combines several concepts from anthropology and science and technology studies to theorise these practices: – politics and regimes of value (Appadurai, 1986); repair and artful integrations (Jackson, 2014; Suchman, 2000); gifting (Baudrillard, 1981; Mauss, 1925/2002) and autonomy (cf Bourdieu, 1993). Bringing together these concepts, the dissertation regards them as constitutive and indicative of what I refer to as ‘media-related infrastructuring practices’, or practices in which non-programmers generate infrastructures through creating and mediating arrangements around technical artefacts like software. The results of the dissertation indicate how making free software for computer graphics media is entangled in diverse conditions of technological unevenness that may enable, but also limit, the possibilities of aspiring media creators to improve their status or work positions in the broader field of digital media. / Under det senaste decenniet har nya medieteknologier för kommunikationoch digitalt skapande möjliggjort för såväl professionella medieproducentersom amatörer att skapa och sprida olika typer av medieinnehåll. Samtidigt finns fler möjligheter än tidigare att bidra till utvecklingen av digitala medieteknologer, såsom programvaruverktyg och infrastrukturer för att producera och cirkulera medieinnehåll (t.ex. Coleman, 2013; Kannengießer,2016; Kubitschko, 2017; Löwgren and Reimer, 2013; Ratto, 2011; Rosneroch Fox, 2016; Toombs et al., 2014). Denna avhandling undersöker hur dessa ökade möjligheter för skapandet av teknologier och infrastrukturer för digital medieproduktion, i synnerhet programvara, har tagits tillvara av mediekreatörer som arbetar, eller strävar efter att arbeta, med datorgrafik. Avhandlingen fokuserar på kulturella, teknologiska och ekonomiska praktiker genom vilka frilansare, oetablerade mediekreatörer och mindre produktionsbolag skapar användardrivna programvaror. Med användardriven avser jag programvara som utvecklas av dess användare: digitalkonstnärer, amatörer och professionellaskapare av digitalt visuell media, snarare än de industriella producenter som traditionellt satt de tekniska ramarna för medieproduktion. Avhandlingen baseras på två empiriska fallstudier som rör skapandet av fri programvara för datoranimation. Med fri programvara avses program där användarna har frihet att använda, kopiera, distribuera, studera, ändra och förbättra programvaran (GNUProject, 2017). De huvudsakliga forskningsfrågorna är: a) hur skapare av datorgrafik utvecklar, formar och guidarde fria programvaror som utgör ett alternativ till industriella programvarorför digital animation, och b) vilken mening dessa alternativ tillskrivs när de används i medieproduktion. Den första fallstudien fokuserar på arbetet av Blender Institute, en oberoende animationsstudio i Amsterdam, Nederländerna. Sedan 2006 har studion arbetat med att utveckla och förbättra en populär programvara för 3D-animation, Blender. Detta har skett genom skapandet av så kallade ‘open-source animation films’, korta animerade filmer med höga produktionsvärden genom vilka programvara, filmelement och utbildning i programvaranhar delats online. Genom den här fallstudien har jag diskuterat programvaruutveckling i en kontext av delningsekonomi. Jag har visat hur strategiskt delande kan vara ett sätt att erövra en maktposition inom digitalmedieproduktion. Jag har också belyst de olika spänningar som uppstår när kulturproducenter söker förena olika perspektiv på programvaror, individuella ambitioner och existerande marknadsstrukturer. Den andra fallstudien fokuserar på praktikerna av Morevna project, ett kollektiv av animé-fans, geografiskt situerade i staden Gorno-Altaysk, i ryska Sibirien. Kollektivet har skapat korta datoranimerade filmer genom vilka man utforskat, lagat och distribuerat den fria programvara de använt i sina produktioner: Synfig för 2D animering. I denna fallstudie har jag argumenterat för värdet av att undersöka spänningar, misslyckanden och lagning snarare än innovationer för att förstå hur alternativa infrastrukturerför digital medieproduktion kan uppstå i kontexter starkt präglade av piratverksamhet. Fallstudierna presenteras och analyseras i fyra olika tidskriftsartiklar och ett bokkapitel, som alla ingår i denna avhandling. De tre första artiklarna svarar mot den första forskningsfrågan och de två sista artiklarna mot den andra. Metodologiskt utgår avhandlingen ifrån kvalitativa ansatser, såsom grounded theory och etnografi. Det empiriska materialet har samlats inmellan 2012 och 2016. Som en del av fältarbetet har jag genomfört kvalitativaintervjuer med 37 informanter. Bland dessa ingår skapare av datorgrafikoch animationer, programmerare och projektledare på Blender Institute och i Morevna. Teoretiskt utgår avhandlingen från ett perspektiv på medier som praktik (Couldry, 2004, 2012). Specifika praktiker som analyseras och teoretiseras i artiklarna är dekommodifiering av programvara; förankrandet av lagningav programvara i medieproduktion; samt delning online av programvara, filmer och filmmaterial; produktionsarbete; samt utbildningsmaterial. Praktikerna analyseras genom begreppen politics and regimes of value (Appadurai, 1986); repair och artful integrations (Jackson, 2014; Suchman,2000); och gifting (Baudrillard, 1981; Mauss, 1925/2002). Jag har också utgått från begreppet autonomi (jfr. Bourdieu, 1993) för att utforska frågan om meningsproduktion vid utveckling av användardriven fri programvaraför medieproduktion. Begreppen beskriver hur olika relationer upprätthålls mellan digitala artefakter, ekonomi och personer. Jag förenar dem i ett gemensamt teoretiskt ramverk genom begreppet infrastructuring (Karasti och Syrjänen, 2004) från science and technology studies. Genom detta begrepp vidgar jag perspektivet på medier som praktik med fokus på praktiker där icke-programmerare och amatörer skapar digitala infrastrukturer genom att integrera nya verktyg och teknik med socialt praktik. Resultaten av denna studie visar hur skapandet av fri programvara av frilansare, oetablerade mediekreatörer och mindre produktionsbolag är ett sätt att skapa infrastrukturell trygghet på en osäker arbetsmarknad. Olika former av autonomi förhandlas i relation till olika konfigurationer av infrastrukturer för teknikproduktion och distribution, till exempel infrastrukturerför piratkopiering eller för att komma runt industriellt skapade begränsningar i förändringen av programvara. I linje med Jackson (2014) betonar jag vikten av att väga upp diskursen kring ‘användarinnovation’ (von Hippel, 2005) genom att betrakta misslyckanden, förfall och haverier som en del av processen av att utveckla nya medier och ny medieteknik, och på så sätt omförhandla uppdelningen och hierarkin mellan olika medieproducenter. Programvaruförfall, dekommodifiering och åldrande kan göra programvaror till ‘residual media’ (Acland, 2007), som i sig kan fungera som en plats där mening, värde och maktförhållanden omförhandlas och skapas på nytt. Dessa omförhandlingar är inte sprungna ur snabba och spontana förändringsprocesser möjliggjorda genom nätverk av kommunikationsteknologier. Snarare karakteriseras de av långsamhet (Paper 3), strategi, dolt kapital (Paper 2), samt konstant förhandling mellan olika intressen (Paper 1, 4 och 5). Litteratur som behandlar organisationen av öppen medieproduktion baserad på allmänningar såsom fri programvara och digitala artefakter som delas online har ofta beskrivits som något som utvecklas organiskt när de frikopplats från etablerade upphovsrättsformer (t.ex. Benkler, 2006; Shirky, 2009). Denna avhandling visar dock att det krävs strategiskt och långsiktigt engagemang för att skapa och etablera en programvara, engagera grupper av användare och integrera programvaran i aktuell medieproduktion. Dessutom antas det ofta att det är hackare, programmerare eller ingenjörer som har makten att tänka ut och realisera faktiska infrastrukturer för digital medieproduktion. Denna studie visardock att mikroanställningar och retorik gör det möjligt även för användare att initiera och påverka medieteknikutvecklingen (Paper 5). Genom att anlägga ett perspektiv på medier som praktik och utveckla det perspektivet med begreppet infrastructuring till det jag kallar för ‘mediarelated infrastructuring practices’ har jag visat hur användardriven programvara och infrastrukturer för datografik skapas och stabiliseras genom att skapa nya och integrera existerande resurser i det digitala medielandskapet. Detta perspektiv öppnar upp möjligheter för att etablera kopplingar mellan olika delfält inom medievetenskapen som fokuserar på medieproduktion, såsom studier av industriell medieproduktion; amatördriven öppenteknikproduktion; samt studier av medieinfrastruktur. Genom infrastructuring kan man se hur medieproducenter skapar nya, förändrar och kritiserar existerande arbetsrelationer, ekonomiska relationer samt kunskapsrelationer. Dessutom kan det växande fältet av infrastrukturstudierutvecklas genom att byta fokus från studier av stora etablerade medieinfrastrukturertill processer av pågående infrastrukturformering av mindre och nya aktörer i det digitala medielandskapet. Sammanfattningsvis bidrar denna avhandling med empiriskt material vilket skapar en större förståelse för formeringen av delar av de digitalamedieproduktionsinfrastrkturer genom en analys av skapandet av användardrivenfri programvara för digital animation. Den bidrar också teoretiskt till en utveckling av perspektivet på medier som praktik (Couldry, 2012). Metodologiskt bidrar den genom att betona värdet av platsbaserad deltagande observation och etnografi även i sammanhang av decentraliserad medieproduktionspraktik. Den bidrar även till att skapa en större förståelse för produktionen av tekniken som underbygger och möjliggör de visuella uttrycken som präglar det mesta av vårt digitala medieinnehållsutbud idag.

The objective of the study was to evaluate cow reproductive performance in the sweetveld and sourveld communal grazing areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In the first experiment, farmer perceptions were obtained using participatory rural appraisals. Farmers ranked lack of fences, tick-borne diseases, poor animal condition during winter and poor breeding practices, respectively as major constraints limiting cattle production in the Eastern Cape. Cattle, sheep and goats, in that order, were ranked as the most important livestock species and were mainly kept for meat, cash and ceremonies, respectively. The non-descript cattle breed was the most common breed found in the smallholder areas. Most farmers preferred Nguni breed because of its adaptive attributes. In the second experiment, structured questionnaires were administered, between June and August 2006, to a total of 551 farmers from 10 communities of the Eastern Cape. There was a significant association (P<0.05) between the use of pregnancy diagnoses and community. About 87 and 77 % of the interviewed farmers did not respond on the extent of pregnancy and calving rates in their herds. A higher proportion of farmers from Hekele (51%) and from Upper Mnxe (45.3%) communities reported low number of bulls as a major constraint to cow reproductive performance. Body condition and ovarian activity were measured in the sweet and sour veld types. Body condition score of animals was measured from March iii 2007 until January 2008 and ovarian activity of cows was performed by a veterinarian through rectal palpation in June, August and October 2007 and January 2008. From March to July, there was a marked decline in body condition on both veld types. In the sweetveld, body condition improved from September until January, whereas in the sourveld the improvement in body condition started in October. The cows in both veld types conceived throughout the year. Most cows in the sweetveld were cycling in January and August (P<0.05) whereas in the sourveld there was no distinct period when the animals were cycling. Overall, there were no differences in the proportion of cows that were cycling between the sour and sweet veldts (P>0.05). There were more cows cycling in sourveld in October than in the sweetveld. Reproductive performance of cows in communal areas could, therefore, be determined by levels and quality of nutrition. Keywords: Participatory rural appraisals; Structured questionnaires; Farmer participation; Farmer perceptions; Body condition scoring; Ovarian activity; Pregnancy diagnoses.

This diploma thesis deals with protection of copyright within online media, with a focus on personal blogs. The author presents definition of basic terms of copyright, especially definition of usage of the work and description of way of use, and deals with the issue of liability for copyright infringement and identification of persons who carry the responsibility. This thesis is also dedicated to copyrights itself and its instruments of enforcement. Increased focus is put on available jurisdiction, especially jusrisdiction of The Court of Justice of the European Union. Finally, the author conducted a survey among the authors who publish their works online to determine their experience with the violation of their rights.