European immigrants introduced orchards to the U.S. in the early 1600s. As they began to establish settlements and migrate west, they brought orchard cultivation with them, creating an extensive network of orchards spread across the U.S. However, over time many of these orchards were lost due to urban development, which is what makes Seattle’s historic orchards significant. Early Seattle settlers planted orchards in the 1800s and early 1900s, and their remnants still exist today, despite urban development. Over the years, many of the orchards have been incorporated onto City Department-owned land, but they have not been maintained to the extent that they could or should be. In the past few years, there has been an interest in rejuvenating Seattle’s historic orchards and planting new ones in order to contribute to the growing local urban agriculture movement. This piece of work is framed around a discussion of the significance of Seattle’s orchards, their significance to the surrounding communities, and how the work accomplished at these sites can become sustainable.

Environmental education has been a prominent approach to achieve sustainable development and counteract the megatrend of environmental degradation. In Costa Rica, environmental education has been adopted as an essential tool for protecting and improving the natural environment. The people of Costa Rica have emphasized an awareness of environmental issues and an ability to actively engage in environmental education and sustainable development programs. International development organizations have invested in development programs to establish or improve sustainable development. In order to understand whether international development organizations are achieving their stated mission and goals for implementing development programs, donors and funding agencies usually require that the sponsored programs be evaluated. Unfortunately, there is a growing concern that the current practice of development evaluation limits the reporting of impacts to be fundamentally inconsistent which has created incentives for evaluations to include positive bias instead of serving the purpose to improve organizational decision-making. This research study proposed to evaluate the reaction of a community in Limon, Costa Rica to development programs using an operational framework of evaluation and logic models found in the review of literature. The researcher adopted a naturalistic case study approach intended to retain the natural context of the community setting and provide a holistic understanding of community perceptions. Qualitative methods based in rapid rural appraisal were used to collect data from a purposeful sample and a stratified purposeful sample within the population. Data analysis was conducted at both the research site during data collection and after all data was collected. The researcher incorporated the constant comparative method to determine consistencies, anomalies, patterns, and emerging themes during data analysis. Three overarching themes emerged as a result of the study: (a) community development with subcategories describing community improvement, collaboration with the international development organization, integration of individuals and groups within the community, and the sustainability of projects, (b) education with subcategories expanding on ideas and motivation, learning, and inspiration for the children, and (c) culture with subcategories that discussed community culture, the organizational culture of the international development organization, and relationships.

The purpose of this research was to determine the potential capacity for improved participation through community-based approaches to small hydroelectric development in the Indian Himalayas. The objectives of the research were: (1) to establish the current roles of the civic, public and private sectors in small hydro development; (2) to examine the potential for learning through participation during the development of small hydro projects; (3) to determine the potential for using community-based environmental assessment in future projects; (4) to investigate the benefits of community-driven small hydro development, and (5) to determine the implications of the findings for environmental policy and decision-making. Data were gathered using Participatory Rural Appraisal methods including semi-structured interviews, transect walks, and landscape analysis. There were five case study projects (Niti, Bampa, Jumma, Malari and Bamini/Badrinath), each in the Indo-Tibetan border region of the Indian Himalayas. The plants are all run of river, and range in capacity from 25 kW to 1.2 MW. Four of the villages had no electricity prior to the development of the small-hydro plants, while one had a prior connection to the state electrical grid (Bamini/Badrinath). The villages are inhabited by Bhotia tribespeople, and are occupied only during the summer growing season. The residents travel to lower altitude villages for the winter months. The most successful project examined, in the village of Malari, was one where community development and energy needs were considered simultaneously, and where the local community was highly involved in planning, construction and operation. The less successful projects were those where community involvement and development, sound planning, and detailed geographic information about the site were lacking in their development and operation; such as was observed in the village of Jumma, where the plant never began operations because it was damaged by an avalanche prior to its inauguration. PLEASE NOTE: As of January 2007 the State of Uttaranchal was renamed Uttarakhand. The change is not reflected in this thesis. / May 2007

Over the last decade, coral reef remote sensing research has focused on habitat map development. Advances in field methods, spatial and spectral resolution of remote sensing data, and algorithm development have led to more detailed map categories and to heightened map accuracy. Studies have provided guidance for practitioners in areas such as imagery selection, algorithm application, and class selection methods, but the product has remained relatively unchanged – a habitat map showing the spatial distribution of a range of substrate classes, classified primarily on the basis of their spectral signature. However, the application of such a product in a management context has not been elaborated by the remote sensing community. The research described in this thesis addresses the challenge that the application of remotely-sensed coral reef information in a coral reef management environment elicits. In such an environment, the coral reef manager asks: "What can the map do to help me?", while the remote sensing scientist asks: "What type of information do you need?". The research described here aims to reconcile these two points of view, by answering the research question of this thesis: How can coral reef remotely-sensed information address stakeholder-specific coral reef management objectives? This question was answered through the development of a four-stage strategy. The strategy includes: 1) developing a traditional habitat map, 2) investigating stakeholder receptivity to the habitat map, 3) linking stakeholder interests with habitat data, and 4) illustrating the linked habitat data in what we term a management map. The strategy was applied on Bunaken Island, Indonesia, and involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data sets. The research was relevant to the communities on Bunaken Island, as they are directly responsible for the management of the coral reef resources surrounding Bunaken Island, and they are regularly planning and implementing coral reef management projects. The effectiveness of the four-stage strategy was evaluated in a framework that compares potential and actual uses of habitat maps and management maps in coral reef management projects. It was shown that management maps are superior to habitat maps for a wide range of management purposes. This research has provided two main contributions to the field of coral reef remote sensing and management. The first is the four-stage strategy that results in the development of management maps, and the second is the framework for evaluating the effectiveness of the management maps. This research seeks to traverse the gap between producers and users of coral reef remotely-sensed information. The recommendations made from this research addresses coral reef management procedures, action research, and cross-cultural communication. Each recommendation is founded on collaboration between scientist and manager. Such collaboration is crucial for successful application of remotely-sensed information to management.

The Community Based Policing model has been adopted by the large majority of policing agencies as another tool on an officer’s duty belt that allows them to do their job more effectively and efficiently. The model is premised on the building and maintaining of relationships of the Police Service and the community it serves. The model argues that Services must ensure that the community is given a voice in the way police enforce the laws. The model encourages that the police and community work together in a partnership that is different from the traditional relationship shared between the two groups under the previous Professional Policing model. This working in partnership means that not only must the police become more open to the community providing direction in the way they do their job, but also that the community must take a more active role in the policing of their areas. This partnership could be considered an exchange of information from both the police and the community. As argued by Marcel Mauss in The Gift, relationships that are on-going and have elements of exchange have obligations. These obligations of giving, receiving and reciprocity ensure that the relationship between the groups is not only maintained, but strengthened. When one of these obligations is not met, however, there are often social consequences. This research attempts to understand the model of Community Based Policing in terms of how it is being applied by Canada’s second oldest police service, the Hamilton Police. With the model encouraging a relationship with the community, issues of gift exchange appear. Through interviews with staff of the Hamilton Police Service, as well as citizens from the community of Hamilton, how these obligations are being met, as well as the effectiveness of the model and its relation to Maussian theory of gift exchange are explored.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is about facing responsibilities towards a company’s employees, customers, stakeholders, suppliers and the environment. As customers and consumers came to seek companies that were dealing with CSR a rapid wave of ”forced” implementations of social responsibility began. Fair Travel Tanzania, which has CSR as the foundation of the company, says that they are transparent about what they do and how they give back to the locals, could it be a problem with this? And how do they actually give back to the locals? Is it possible to measure the impact of CSR activities within the company? And if so, how?

Over the last decade, coral reef remote sensing research has focused on habitat map development. Advances in field methods, spatial and spectral resolution of remote sensing data, and algorithm development have led to more detailed map categories and to heightened map accuracy. Studies have provided guidance for practitioners in areas such as imagery selection, algorithm application, and class selection methods, but the product has remained relatively unchanged – a habitat map showing the spatial distribution of a range of substrate classes, classified primarily on the basis of their spectral signature. However, the application of such a product in a management context has not been elaborated by the remote sensing community. The research described in this thesis addresses the challenge that the application of remotely-sensed coral reef information in a coral reef management environment elicits. In such an environment, the coral reef manager asks: "What can the map do to help me?", while the remote sensing scientist asks: "What type of information do you need?". The research described here aims to reconcile these two points of view, by answering the research question of this thesis: How can coral reef remotely-sensed information address stakeholder-specific coral reef management objectives? This question was answered through the development of a four-stage strategy. The strategy includes: 1) developing a traditional habitat map, 2) investigating stakeholder receptivity to the habitat map, 3) linking stakeholder interests with habitat data, and 4) illustrating the linked habitat data in what we term a management map. The strategy was applied on Bunaken Island, Indonesia, and involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data sets. The research was relevant to the communities on Bunaken Island, as they are directly responsible for the management of the coral reef resources surrounding Bunaken Island, and they are regularly planning and implementing coral reef management projects. The effectiveness of the four-stage strategy was evaluated in a framework that compares potential and actual uses of habitat maps and management maps in coral reef management projects. It was shown that management maps are superior to habitat maps for a wide range of management purposes. This research has provided two main contributions to the field of coral reef remote sensing and management. The first is the four-stage strategy that results in the development of management maps, and the second is the framework for evaluating the effectiveness of the management maps. This research seeks to traverse the gap between producers and users of coral reef remotely-sensed information. The recommendations made from this research addresses coral reef management procedures, action research, and cross-cultural communication. Each recommendation is founded on collaboration between scientist and manager. Such collaboration is crucial for successful application of remotely-sensed information to management.

The Community Based Policing model has been adopted by the large majority of policing agencies as another tool on an officer’s duty belt that allows them to do their job more effectively and efficiently. The model is premised on the building and maintaining of relationships of the Police Service and the community it serves. The model argues that Services must ensure that the community is given a voice in the way police enforce the laws. The model encourages that the police and community work together in a partnership that is different from the traditional relationship shared between the two groups under the previous Professional Policing model. This working in partnership means that not only must the police become more open to the community providing direction in the way they do their job, but also that the community must take a more active role in the policing of their areas. This partnership could be considered an exchange of information from both the police and the community. As argued by Marcel Mauss in The Gift, relationships that are on-going and have elements of exchange have obligations. These obligations of giving, receiving and reciprocity ensure that the relationship between the groups is not only maintained, but strengthened. When one of these obligations is not met, however, there are often social consequences. This research attempts to understand the model of Community Based Policing in terms of how it is being applied by Canada’s second oldest police service, the Hamilton Police. With the model encouraging a relationship with the community, issues of gift exchange appear. Through interviews with staff of the Hamilton Police Service, as well as citizens from the community of Hamilton, how these obligations are being met, as well as the effectiveness of the model and its relation to Maussian theory of gift exchange are explored.

Community-based tourism (CBT) has become an important facet in the quest for sustainable tourism. CBT is a term that has been subjected to different interpretations in the academic literature. In the field, CBT continues to be supported as an approach to improve the livelihoods of local people in communities participating in tourism. With growing interest in the sustainable livelihoods approach to development, tourism researchers have begun to examine tourism as a livelihood strategy. However, there remain few case studies that have connected the sustainable livelihoods approach and tourism. More specifically, there is limited empirical evidence exploring community-based tourism as a livelihood strategy for rural communities. This research employed an exploratory mixed methods approach to investigate community-based tourism from a livelihoods perspective. The case of the Commonwealth of Dominica was examined to address the following objectives: i) to assess the approach to the development of community-based tourism on the island of Dominica; ii) to analyze residents’ perceptions of the impacts that tourism has on their community from a livelihoods perspective; and iii) to evaluate the degree of success (or failure) of community-based tourism development in Dominica. The research findings revealed that community-based tourism is a valued component of Dominica’s national tourism strategy. Since the early nineties, community involvement has been an implicit policy in the tourism development process. More recently, government-funded initiatives have provided assistance to communities across the island to develop, implement, and market community tourism products. Additionally, this research suggests that the livelihood asset pentagon presented in the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism (Shen, Hughey, and Simmons, 2008) is an effective organizational tool for assessing the impact of tourism on communities. Future research should be directed at applying the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism in more diverse contexts to ensure its validity and applicability. Furthermore, there is a need to develop a comprehensive Community-based Tourism Framework to assist in the monitoring and evaluation of community-based tourism projects in the field. The main conclusion drawn from this study is that the island of Dominica is on a successful path for developing community-based tourism and it has the potential to yield a number of ‘best practice’ scenarios for the Caribbean region and the globe a like.

This Thesis attempts to develop an understanding of the problems that Aboriginal offenders encounter in the Canadian justice system and examines why Euro-Canadian justice philosophy and mechanisms are not appropriate or effective. It is often very difficult for non-Aboriginal persons to understand that there is a difference between being Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal. This difference impacts offenders as they interact with the criminal justice system.<p> The sentencing circle is one process by which the sentencing judge can obtain a clearer picture of the offender and consider sentencing options other than the `usual punishment'. It is an opportunity for the offender to address the consequences of his or her actions and to seek the help of community and family. It is also an opportunity for the victim to be heard and to seek redress.<p> Current sentencing practices and theory are briefly examined as they bear on sentencing circles. Issues which have arisen as a result of the implementation of sentencing circles in Saskatchewan are examined (where possible, within the context of Saskatchewan case law).<p> The use of sentencing circles has raised questions about the current approach to sentencing as contrasted with the restorative approach of the circle. The restorative approach to justice is a recurring theme throughout the Thesis. The different approach of the sentencing circle to the offender and the involvement of the community in the sentencing process have raised questions about incarcerating offenders, about disparity in sentences, about the protection of the public, and about the role of the community, the family and victims in the sentencing and rehabilitative processes. These issues are examined.<p> This Thesis has also attempted to draw some conclusions about the larger issue of where sentencing circles may be leading the justice system and the Canadian public. Is the sentencing circle merely an innovation within the justice system that can provide a more effective sentencing mechanism than the sentencing hearing? Or, is the sentencing circle leading Aboriginal peoples towards their own justice systems?<p> The sentencing circle has forced an examination of current sentencing practices. This, in turn, has opened a window of opportunity to do some serious re-evaluation of the existing sentencing process.