This dissertation focuses on two main research questions related to the effect of a factor in a local labor market. Both relate to a finding of Black et al. (2014) that married women are less likely to work in Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) with more traffic congestion. The first essay evaluates the appropriateness of an MSA as a geographical entity in estimating the effect of congestion on labor supply of married women. One concern with such aggregated data is that they do not take into account within-city variation in congestion. In order to address this issue, I replicate the works by Black et al. (2014) at smaller geographical levels. Once the coefficient on commute time at each level is estimated, I compare the coefficients from smaller geographical entities with one from the MSA to examine if they are statistically similar. I find that an MSA is a geographically proper unity when the effect of commute time on the LFP of married women is examined. Additionally, I explore whether commuting time has also a significant effect on other related to labor market issues. First, I find longer commuting time is associated with shorter weekly working time of high school educated women. Secondly, fewer married women are self-employed in the area with longer commuting time. The second essay begins with the possibility of correlation between congestion and the error term in the estimation equation by Black et al. (2014). The coefficient on congestion in their equation might be biased due to the endogeneity problem. I employ a structural approach with a multinomial logit in order to deal with the endogeneity issue. By examining the effect of congestion and its interaction term on city-specific fixed effects that can be estimated using a discrete-choice model of residential decision, I find that the negative relationship between congestion and labor supply of married women discovered by Black et al. (2014) is partially true. The effect of congestion is statistically uncertain or depends on the model specifications, with the exception of a finding that married women with children are especially responsive to the effect of traffic congestion on their willingness to work.

In industrialized countries, mobility represents one of the most important sources of CO2 emissions. Most research on promoting sustainable, climate-friendly modes of transportation has focused on urban areas. Rural areas-although characterized by high dependency on individual car ownership and usage-have received less attention. This article explores the potential role of rural employers in supporting sustainable alternatives to commuting by (single-occupied) motorized vehicles among their employees. We conduct a collective case study that considers five employers located in Eastern Austria (Burgenland), drawing from multiple data sources including structured surveys, expert interviews, focus groups, and site visits. Our analysis shows that employers have little incentive to implement measures that foster sustainable mobility among their employees. On the one hand, the costs accruing to employers for implementing such measures tend to exceed the corresponding benefits by a significant margin (unlike in urban areas where significant cost reductions can arise for employers). On the other hand, also employees generally exhibit little demand for such measures. We conclude that both from a societal and a business perspective, it is not efficient to promote sustainable mobility in rural areas via employers.

The subject of this thesis is migrants’ motives and the outcomes of interregional migration, as well as how the propensity for interregional migration has changed for different groups over the past three decades. The background consists of a discussion on the role of the labour market in long-distance migration decisions and a discussion on how social and economic change affect the context in which migration decisions are made. The thesis consists of four empirical studies presented in four separate papers. The studies derive from two sources of data. Papers I and II are based on a Nordic survey, while Papers III and IV draw from Swedish population register data. Paper I focuses on migrants’ perceptions of the migration decision, motives, voluntariness, attitudes and values, based on a survey. The conclusion of this paper is that employment is by no means a dominating motive from the migrant’s perspective. Additionally, very few migrants explicitly express a sense of being forced to migrate against their will. Paper II is also based on the survey and examines the migrants’ perceptions of the outcome of migration in economic and non-economic terms. This paper further supports the view that employment and income gain are in most cases subordinate in the migration decision from the individual migrants’ point of view. Paper III is a register study comparing the composition of interregional migrants in Sweden during the period 1970-2001. In this study, it becomes evident that the increase in migration rates in the 1990’s was an effect of increased migration among young people. Compared to 1970, increasingly more people migrated during a time in life when they were not yet established on the labour market and had no family. Paper IV is also a register study comparing the effect of commuting potential on migration propensity in Sweden during the period 1970-2001. This paper concludes that increased commuting should be interpreted as a result of, rather than an explanation for, long-distance migration reluctance. Migration literature suggests that long-distance migration is primarily labour-market induced. This is evident in the sense that long-distance migration requires a new job in a new locality for those who are in the labour force, but this study show that this does not necessarily mean that employment is the main motive in the migrant’s mind; the trigger is usually something else, often related to social relationships. The pattern of interregional migration has changed over time. Compared to the 1970’s, more people now migrate at a time when they are not established on the labour market, and other considerations besides employment are thus more relevant. An important explanation for the current immobility among families and employed persons is attributed to the increase in dual-career households during the period studied. This has changed the aggregated migration behaviour everywhere, regardless of commuting potential, but enhanced constraints for interregional migration in this group could be seen as an explanation for the observed increase in commuting.

Active transportation (AT) is a form of physical activity involving human-powered transportation (e.g., walking) and is associated with health benefits. However, the majority of Canadians do not use AT. Although environmental factors, such as proximity, are correlated with AT, interventions to change such factors have been ineffective. According to social cognitive theory, both environmental and personal factors (i.e., social and spatial cognitions) may influence motivated behaviour. The social cognitions of interest in the present study included self-regulatory efficacy to schedule (i.e., confidence to regularly schedule walking for AT), and to overcome barriers (i.e., confidence to cope with barriers to walking for AT). Spatial cognitions included distance and travel time cognitions. The purpose of the study was to examine whether social cognitive personal factors (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy, barriers self-efficacy), spatial cognitive personal factors (i.e., distance and travel time cognitions), and an environmental factor (i.e., proximity) were associated with walking for AT to/from a university campus over a two-week period in a convenience sample of adults. Participants in this prospective observational study were a convenience sample of 105 students, faculty, and staff at a western Canadian university, who ranged in age from 17 to 55 years (M = 24.62 years, SD = 8.15). Participants completed three online surveys over a two-week period. Social cognitions for the following two-week period and spatial cognitions were assessed at Time 1. Recall of walking for AT to/from a university campus in the previous week was assessed at Time 2 and Time 3. Total walking for AT to/from campus over the two-week period was the outcome variable. The overall hierarchical multiple regression model predicting AT from the social and spatial cognitions and proximity was significant (R2adjusted = .53; p < .01). As hypothesized, scheduling (ßstd = .44, p < .01) and barriers (ßstd = .23, p < .05) self-efficacy were associated with AT. Scheduling self-efficacy was the strongest predictor. Contrary to hypotheses, distance and travel time cognitions and proximity were not significant (ps > .05). Social cognitions, particularly self-regulatory efficacy to schedule, and efficacy to overcome barriers, may play an important role in individuals use of walking for AT to/from a university campus. Future research should continue to examine social cognitive-theory based personal and environmental predictors of AT, such as self-regulatory efficacy to goal set, outcome expectations, the weather and residential density, to better understand potential determinants of this health-promoting type of physical activity.

This master thesis project is about easier commuting in a more eco-friendly way thus a new foldable pedelec - pedal electric cycle was created. The idea is that the commuters are able to fold their bicycle to a convenient size and store it under the desk in the office, in a trunk of a car, or even brought on a bus if used as a connecting transport. It incorporates the latest ergonomic, safety, display and drivetrain features in combination with a sleek single-fork design. This enables the pedelec to be folded more conveniently and save additional space. To appeal to a wider range of users they are given the opportunity to choose their own colour codes and personalize their own foldable pedelec.

Active transportation (AT) is a form of physical activity involving human-powered transportation (e.g., walking) and is associated with health benefits. However, the majority of Canadians do not use AT. Although environmental factors, such as proximity, are correlated with AT, interventions to change such factors have been ineffective. According to social cognitive theory, both environmental and personal factors (i.e., social and spatial cognitions) may influence motivated behaviour. The social cognitions of interest in the present study included self-regulatory efficacy to schedule (i.e., confidence to regularly schedule walking for AT), and to overcome barriers (i.e., confidence to cope with barriers to walking for AT). Spatial cognitions included distance and travel time cognitions. The purpose of the study was to examine whether social cognitive personal factors (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy, barriers self-efficacy), spatial cognitive personal factors (i.e., distance and travel time cognitions), and an environmental factor (i.e., proximity) were associated with walking for AT to/from a university campus over a two-week period in a convenience sample of adults. Participants in this prospective observational study were a convenience sample of 105 students, faculty, and staff at a western Canadian university, who ranged in age from 17 to 55 years (M = 24.62 years, SD = 8.15). Participants completed three online surveys over a two-week period. Social cognitions for the following two-week period and spatial cognitions were assessed at Time 1. Recall of walking for AT to/from a university campus in the previous week was assessed at Time 2 and Time 3. Total walking for AT to/from campus over the two-week period was the outcome variable. The overall hierarchical multiple regression model predicting AT from the social and spatial cognitions and proximity was significant (R2adjusted = .53; p < .01). As hypothesized, scheduling (ßstd = .44, p < .01) and barriers (ßstd = .23, p < .05) self-efficacy were associated with AT. Scheduling self-efficacy was the strongest predictor. Contrary to hypotheses, distance and travel time cognitions and proximity were not significant (ps > .05). Social cognitions, particularly self-regulatory efficacy to schedule, and efficacy to overcome barriers, may play an important role in individuals use of walking for AT to/from a university campus. Future research should continue to examine social cognitive-theory based personal and environmental predictors of AT, such as self-regulatory efficacy to goal set, outcome expectations, the weather and residential density, to better understand potential determinants of this health-promoting type of physical activity.

Base on Krugman¡¦s NEG model, we subsume urban cost in this study. Referring to study procedure of Murata and Thisse, make few changes of the model. Then, we get 3 conclusions of this study: (1) Due to the difference between commuting costs of each region, the symmetric distribution of workers will no longer make the largest total mass of varieties. While a region attend to traffic construction in order to drop people¡¦s commuting cost, agglomeration economic will not certainly make a negative impact on urban cost or effect people¡¦s variety consumption behavior. (2) In the case of an agglomeration, if the transportation costs are sufficiently large, the agglomeration equilibrium will be stable. The larger the transportation costs between regions, the larger cost of consuming other regions¡¦ commodity. Thus, chose to agglomerate in a bigger region can get cheaper and variety manufacturing commodities easily. And the agglomeration equilibrium will be stable. (3) Any change of commuting cost of the other region will not influence the stable of agglomeration equilibrium.

Community Infrastructure Establishment is the guiding principle of carrying out ¡§the project for commuting networks in the community schools.¡¨ To achieve the goals of community development, carry out action policies, and to achieve a ¡§community of happiness,¡¨ the plan for commuting networks in the community schools, Kaohsiung City, has been made for schools and communities together to participate. ¡§Humanity¡¨ is taken as the main idea for design; and ¡§decreasing emission amount,¡¨ ¡§ecology,¡¨ and ¡§nature¡¨ are regarded as green architectural thinking. It is hoped to build up a safe, comfortable, healthy, friendly and sustainable organic environment together. This Study takes policy implementation theory and policy assessment theory as the foundation for establishing implementation and assessment structure. By discussing the current state of and result of carrying out the project for commuting networks in the community schools as well as factors influencing on achieving goals of the project, it is expected to achieve the research purpose. Using self-made survey questionnaires based on research structure, the author proceeded with the survey on students and teachers of Cianjin Elementary School, Cianjin Junior High School, and Cisian Junior High School, Cianjin District, and these students¡¦ parents, the district¡¦s heads of neighborhoods and local residents. 617 copies of questionnaires were distributed. 558 effective copies were retrieved. Only effective samples are taken. Analysis approaches such as percentile rank, t-test, descriptive statistics, and one-way ANOVA are employed to proceed with data processing and analysis. After comprehensive analysis and discussion, conclusions and suggestions are made as follows. A. In the situation of carrying out the project for commuting networks in the community schools, Kaohsiung City, new campus landscapes have been advanced, mutual relation between schools and communities has been strengthened, and manifest and hidden double meanings have been brought out. B. At the level of achieving effective goals of the project for commuting networks in the community schools, ¡§beautification and virescence of landscape¡¨ and ¡§safety and convenience¡¨ reach the highest level of accomplishment. C. At the level of achieving effective goals of carrying out the project for commuting networks in the community schools, according to different employment positions, living areas, ages and education levels, people have different attitudes towards the four aspects -- ¡§environment and beautification and virescence,¡¨ ¡§safety,¡¨ ¡§mutual relation among and participation in communities,¡¨ and ¡§level of general satisfaction.¡¨ D. In this Study, it is found that 70% of interviewees agree that commuting networks in the community schools can increase community residents¡¦ relaxing and walking activities. But only 51% of interviewees agree that teachers, parents and community residents create more opportunities to take part in public affairs. Therefore, there should be some space for growth in community mutual relations. Focusing on concrete aspects of participation in communities instead of concerning the surface should be made. E. In this Study, it is found that 76.9% of interviewees agree that strangers and thieves have easily disrupted safety and security since the external walls of campuses were opened up and 71.3% of interviewees agree that the opening up of external walls of campuses causes a problem for managing students¡¦ comings and goings. Thus it is worth paying attention to and scheduling school campuses¡¦ safety and security. Supporting measures and management of campuses¡¦ safety and security should be strengthened. F. 63% of interviewees agree that Kaohsiung City¡¦s streets and landscapes have become more beautiful since improvement has been made and 48.9% of interviewees think that their sense of happiness in life has been enhanced. Thus, everyone has a different interpretation on the concept of happiness. That is because meaning of happiness is rather abstract.

<p>Eurosclerosis is gripping Europe; one suggested remedy is higher mobility of people. That is what this thesis aims to address: Inter-municipality commuting mobility in Sweden.</p><p>This essay is investigating the Swedish commuting as of 2005. The hypothesis is duly formed as such: High education is significant for the outcome of the commuting decision. The regional pattern of commuting is also considered to a degree. Aggregated data on Swedish commuting between municipalities is used.</p><p>The theory used to investigate this is basic agglomeration theory including the simplest form of gravity model. Theories on utility, human capital and distance friction complement the analysis.</p><p>Concluding comments include: higher education is significant for the commuting decision, and living in more densely populated areas like “big” cities increases chances of people commuting.</p>

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 274-305). Also available in print.