O presente trabalho elenca um rol de argumentos que apresentam a agricultura brasileira como um setor dinâmico e pujante da economia brasileira, mostrando que, muito mais do que gerar alimentos, este setor é um dos eixos de crescimento e desenvolvimento econômico, podendo contribuir muito mais para o crescimento de longo prazo da economia brasileira se ativado para este propósito. No entanto, para que se tenha um horizonte de longo prazo é necessário discutir-se a competitividade desse setor, o que é feito a partir da apresentação dos resultados de uma pesquisa de levantamento e comparação de custos de produção de Milho, Soja e Trigo, realizada entre 2008 e 2012, com a mesma metodologia, nos principais países do mundo, conhecida como Agri benchmark. Os dados mostram que o Brasil exibe alto custo de produção em relação a seus concorrentes e este estudo apresenta algumas das principais razões para essa diferença de custos, quais sejam: tributação, logística, produtividade da mão-de-obra e as diferenças entre as políticas públicas. Esta dissertação busca mensurar as Vantagens Comparativas Reveladas dos principais grãos de exportação brasileiros, com o intuito de descobrir se os altos custos de produção observados chegam a retirar a competitividade da agricultura nacional, o que se verificou somente para o caso do Trigo. / This study gives many arguments which presents Brazilian Agriculture as a dynamic and strong sector of Brazilian economy, showing that, more than the ability to supply food, this sector is one of the axis for growth and economic development. It would contribute for long term economic growth if it would be activate toward this proposal. However, for long term view is necessary to discus the competitiveness of this sector, which is made by using results of a research that compares cost of production of corn, soybean and wheat between 2008 and 2012, using the same methodology, for most producers around the world, known as Agri benchmark. The date shows that Brazil is the most expensive country in terms of cost of production in comparison with his competitors and this study also shows the main reasons, which are: taxation, logistics, workforce productivity and subsidies. This thesis measures Revealed Comparative Advantages of mains Brazilian grains produced, aiming to realize if high costs reduces agriculture competitiveness, which is observed in wheat.

O presente trabalho elenca um rol de argumentos que apresentam a agricultura brasileira como um setor dinâmico e pujante da economia brasileira, mostrando que, muito mais do que gerar alimentos, este setor é um dos eixos de crescimento e desenvolvimento econômico, podendo contribuir muito mais para o crescimento de longo prazo da economia brasileira se ativado para este propósito. No entanto, para que se tenha um horizonte de longo prazo é necessário discutir-se a competitividade desse setor, o que é feito a partir da apresentação dos resultados de uma pesquisa de levantamento e comparação de custos de produção de Milho, Soja e Trigo, realizada entre 2008 e 2012, com a mesma metodologia, nos principais países do mundo, conhecida como Agri benchmark. Os dados mostram que o Brasil exibe alto custo de produção em relação a seus concorrentes e este estudo apresenta algumas das principais razões para essa diferença de custos, quais sejam: tributação, logística, produtividade da mão-de-obra e as diferenças entre as políticas públicas. Esta dissertação busca mensurar as Vantagens Comparativas Reveladas dos principais grãos de exportação brasileiros, com o intuito de descobrir se os altos custos de produção observados chegam a retirar a competitividade da agricultura nacional, o que se verificou somente para o caso do Trigo. / This study gives many arguments which presents Brazilian Agriculture as a dynamic and strong sector of Brazilian economy, showing that, more than the ability to supply food, this sector is one of the axis for growth and economic development. It would contribute for long term economic growth if it would be activate toward this proposal. However, for long term view is necessary to discus the competitiveness of this sector, which is made by using results of a research that compares cost of production of corn, soybean and wheat between 2008 and 2012, using the same methodology, for most producers around the world, known as Agri benchmark. The date shows that Brazil is the most expensive country in terms of cost of production in comparison with his competitors and this study also shows the main reasons, which are: taxation, logistics, workforce productivity and subsidies. This thesis measures Revealed Comparative Advantages of mains Brazilian grains produced, aiming to realize if high costs reduces agriculture competitiveness, which is observed in wheat.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a competitividade das exportações brasileiras de manga e de uva no mercado internacional no período de 1989 a 2005. Para tanto, utilizou-se o modelo de Constant Market Share (CMS) e o modelo de Vantagem Comparativa Revelada (VCR) para evidenciar os principais fatores responsáveis pela rápida expansão das exportações nacionais para esses dois produtos, além de realizar uma análise comparativa entre as duas culturas selecionadas. O primeiro modelo busca analisar as causas de variação da quantidade (ou valor) exportada de um produto pelo país em questão em relação ao tempo, gerando três dimensões explicativas para a variação das exportações: o efeito dimensão, o efeito distribuição e o efeito competitividade. O efeito dimensão mostra como o crescimento das exportações mundiais afetou o crescimento das exportações do país analisado. O efeito distribuição refere-se às exportações para países de maior ou menor dinamismo. Por resíduo, descontando-se os demais efeitos temos o termo competitividade.Para a geração dos resultados foi necessária a sub-divisão do período de análise em três grupos trienais: 1989/1990/1991, 1994/1995/1996 e 2003/2004/2005.O modelo de Vantagem Comparativa Revelada parte do pressuposto de que o país em questão tende a se especializar nas exportações de produtos que ofereçam vantagens competitivas. Para tanto, o indicador deve apresentar um valor superior a 1 para os produtos competitivos, evidenciando que a participação do produto em questão na pauta do país analisado é superior à participação do país no mercado global geral. Diferentemente do CMS, os indicadores de Vantagem Comparativa Revelada (VCR) nas exportações de um produto podem ser calculados com freqüência anual. O resultado do modelo de Constant Market Share para manga, referente ao primeiro sub-período de análise, mostra que o significativo aumento das exportações brasileiras de manga foi fortemente influenciado pelo crescimento do mercado mundial, seguido pelo efeito competitividade e destino das exportações. Para o segundo subperíodo, o efeito de maior significância foi a competitividade, seguido pelo efeito crescimento do mercado mundial e destino das exportações. Para a uva, o resultado referente ao primeiro sub-período de análise mostra que o significativo aumento das exportações brasileiras dessa fruta foi fortemente influenciado pelo efeito destino das exportações, seguido pelo efeito competitividade e crescimento do mercado mundial. Para o segundo sub-período, os resultados apontam a competitividade como principal fator responsável pelo aumento das exportações brasileiras, seguido pelo efeito crescimento do mercado mundial. O efeito destino das exportações apresentou valor negativo. Para o caso da manga, foram observados altos valores para o indicador de Vantagem Comparativa Revelada, especialmente para o período após 1993. Diferentemente dos resultados apresentados para a manga, as exportações de uva revelam vantagem comparativa apenas no final do período analisado (depois de 2002). / This paper has the main purpose of analyzing competitiveness of Brazilian exports of mangoes and grapes in the international market between 1989 and 2005. Constant Market Share and Revealed Comparative Advantage were used to obtain the main factors that could explain the fast growth of Brazilian exports of the chosen fruits, doing a comparative analysis between these fruits. The first model tries to analyze the reasons of variation in the quantity (or value) of a product exported by the current country related to the time, generating three dimensions: the effect dimension, the effect distribution and the effect competitiveness. The effect dimension shows how the growth of the world exports affected the growth of the current country\'s exports. The effect distribution relates to exports to countries of bigger or smaller dynamism. As a result, discounting the other effects we have the term competitiveness. To generate the results it was necessary to have the sub-division of the analyzed period into three triennial groups: 1989/1990/1991, 1994/1995/1996 and 2003/2004/2005.The Revealed Comparative Advantage model considers that a country tends to specialize itself in exporting products that offer competitive advantages. Thus, the indicator must submit a value higher than 1 for competitive products, showing that the product participation in a country is superior to the country participation in the global market. Different from Constant Market Share (CMS), Revealed Comparative Advantage indicators of exports can be calculated with annual frequency. The Constant Market Share model result for mangoes, referring to the first sub-period analysis shows that the significant increase in Brazilian exports of mangoes was strongly influenced by the growth of the world market, followed by the competitiveness effect, and the destination of exports. For the second sub-period, the most significant effect was the competitiveness, followed by the growth of the world market and the destination of exports. Considering grapes, the result referring to the first sub-period analysis shows that the significant increase in Brazilian grapes exports was strongly influenced by the effect \"exports destination\", followed by the effect competitiveness and the world market\'s growth. For the second sub-period, the results indicate competitiveness as the main factor responsible for the increase of the Brazilian exports, followed by the growth of the world market. The effect \"exports destination\" showed a negative value. For the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) model, the mango case results showed a high revealed comparative advantage, especially after 1993. The grapes´ results show a comparative advantage only at the end of the period, when, from 2002 on there was a trend of grape consolidation as a competitive product in the international market, though on a distant level from mangoes.

O presente trabalho elenca um rol de argumentos que apresentam a agricultura brasileira como um setor dinâmico e pujante da economia brasileira, mostrando que, muito mais do que gerar alimentos, este setor é um dos eixos de crescimento e desenvolvimento econômico, podendo contribuir muito mais para o crescimento de longo prazo da economia brasileira se ativado para este propósito. No entanto, para que se tenha um horizonte de longo prazo é necessário discutir-se a competitividade desse setor, o que é feito a partir da apresentação dos resultados de uma pesquisa de levantamento e comparação de custos de produção de Milho, Soja e Trigo, realizada entre 2008 e 2012, com a mesma metodologia, nos principais países do mundo, conhecida como Agri benchmark. Os dados mostram que o Brasil exibe alto custo de produção em relação a seus concorrentes e este estudo apresenta algumas das principais razões para essa diferença de custos, quais sejam: tributação, logística, produtividade da mão-de-obra e as diferenças entre as políticas públicas. Esta dissertação busca mensurar as Vantagens Comparativas Reveladas dos principais grãos de exportação brasileiros, com o intuito de descobrir se os altos custos de produção observados chegam a retirar a competitividade da agricultura nacional, o que se verificou somente para o caso do Trigo. / This study gives many arguments which presents Brazilian Agriculture as a dynamic and strong sector of Brazilian economy, showing that, more than the ability to supply food, this sector is one of the axis for growth and economic development. It would contribute for long term economic growth if it would be activate toward this proposal. However, for long term view is necessary to discus the competitiveness of this sector, which is made by using results of a research that compares cost of production of corn, soybean and wheat between 2008 and 2012, using the same methodology, for most producers around the world, known as Agri benchmark. The date shows that Brazil is the most expensive country in terms of cost of production in comparison with his competitors and this study also shows the main reasons, which are: taxation, logistics, workforce productivity and subsidies. This thesis measures Revealed Comparative Advantages of mains Brazilian grains produced, aiming to realize if high costs reduces agriculture competitiveness, which is observed in wheat.

O crescimento do consumo das classes de renda mais baixas, um fenômeno que se verifica, em maior ou menor grau, nos países em desenvolvimento como o Brasil, deve ser saudado com satisfação. Afinal, dar acesso a um enorme contingente de pessoas a uma variedade de produtos e serviços - antes inteiramente fora do seu alcance - pode se traduzir em um enorme benefício econômico e social. Ocorre que este acesso não se dá sem conseqüências. A história recente, especialmente a do desenvolvimento global ao longo do século XX, já trouxe uma série de efeitos preocupantes quando se pensa na sustentabilidade dos modelos de produção e consumo até hoje adotados. É enorme, portanto, o desafio de incorporar este enorme contingente de consumidores parciais ou praticamente nulos ao padrão de bem-estar já alcançado pelos de melhor condição de renda. Nossos processos e conceitos terão, certamente, de ser revistos radicalmente. O objetivo primordial deste trabalho é contribuir para a discussão acerca das práticas e modelos de produção, distribuição e consumo, de produtos e serviços, em face das novas necessidades que trazem estes muitos novos consumidores. A este novo modelo este trabalho chama de massificação sustentável. O estudo se divide em três partes: na primeira, foi feita uma pesquisa bibliográfica abrangente, com o intuito de descrever quais são os aspectos mais relevantes a serem considerados na busca pela massificação sustentável, de acordo com a literatura; na segunda - com base nos dados obtidos na etapa anterior - foi aplicada uma pesquisa quantitativa exploratória a um grupo de executivos, de forma a obter indícios a respeito das práticas empresariais em uso corrente no Brasil, e seu alinhamento com a massificação sustentável; na terceira parte, foi desenvolvido um estudo de caso que traz estreita relação com os temas de sustentabilidade: a fibra Alya Eco, feita a partir de PET reciclado, descrevendo sua trajetória mercadológica desde o lançamento, em 2001. Os resultados indicam que os imensos desafios na busca da massificação sustentável ainda estão por serem mais apropriada e eficientemente enfrentados. / The growth on the consumption of the lower income classes, a phenomenon that is verified, in greater or minor degree, in the developing countries like Brazil, must be greeted with great satisfaction. After all, to give access to an enormous contingent of people to a variety of products and services - entirely out of its reach until the last years - can be expressed as an enormous economic and social benefit. This access, however, does not come without consequences. The recent history shows that, especially considering the global development throughout the 20th. Century, we have already brought a series of preoccupying effect when regarding the utilization of production and consumption models adopted until today. It is an enormous challenge, therefore, to incorporate this huge contingent of partial or practically null consumers to the standard of well-being status already reached by the ones of better income conditions. Our processes and concepts will certainly have to be reviewed radically. The primordial objective of this work is to contribute for the discussions concerning the models of production, distribution and consumption, of products and services, in face of the new necessities that comes with these many new consumers. This new model is called sustainable massification in this work. This study is divided in three parts: in the first one an including bibliographical research was made, with the intention to describe which are the most compelling aspects to be considered in the search for the sustainable massification, in accordance with the literature; in the second and regarding the themes researched in the previous stage - an exploratory quantitative research was conducted with a group of Brazilian executives, in order to get indications regarding the most popular practices in current use in Brazil, and its alignment with the sustainable massification; in the third part, a case study was developed regarding the fiber Alya Eco, made from recycled PET, describing its market trajectory since its launching, in 2001. The results indicate that the immense challenges in the search of the sustainable massification are yet to be more appropriately and efficiently faced.

This thesis examines the impact of environmental regulations on trade competitiveness for South Asian countries. The study further investigates whether South Asian countries have become a pollutive haven of industrial exports to OECD countries during 1984-2004. The thesis also analyses whether tariff walls created by the governments to offsets stringent environmental regulations negatively affect pollutive industrial trade flows. This study has identified gaps in the literature after critically reviewing both competing trade theories and empirical literature surrounding the subject. Firstly, most of the empirical literature on the subject has focused on developed countries while ignoring less developed regions like South Asia. Second, several studies concluded trade competitiveness impact of environmental policy following a single estimation method when results are sensitive to the choice of the method used. Hence, for robust results, cross-methods analysis was imperative. Thirdly, the empirical literature on the subject focused on most pollutive industries and ignored the research on somewhat pollutive and least pollutive sectors as well as comparative analysis between those industries. This study has contributed to the literature by filling these gaps. Following the neo-classical theory, the central hypothesis of this thesis is that environmental regulations negatively affect different categories of pollutive industrial export competitiveness. By using the highest dis-aggregated ISIC level trade data and incorporating other socio-economic variables, this study has deployed comparative advantage trade models by Balassa (1965), competitiveness indicator by XU (1999), and bilateral RCA model by Grether and de Melo (2004). The study used the gravity model to control for un-observed effects over time on trade flows while capturing environmental regulations impact on pollutive industrial trade competitiveness. Accordingly, to avert endogeneity/data sensitivity issues and to ascertain robust estimates, the present research has among others computed Random Effect and Newey-West standard error models. The statistical modeling results show that while India gained trade competitiveness in most pollutive industrial trade, Pakistan and Bangladesh lost their trade competitiveness in the same category. The research finds evidence of most pollutive industries of South Asian countries increasing their bilateral RCAs and exports with OECD countries and reset of the world. A comparative analysis between most pollutive to less pollutive industries showed a lack of support for any systematic specialization patterns of trade for South Asia during 1984-2004. Nonetheless, this study findings based on gravity modeling clearly depicted a statistically significant negative impact of environmental regulations on total exports, most pollutive exports, and less pollutive industrial exports for South Asia and OECD countries. This study rejected the pollution haven hypothesis between South Asian pollutive industrial exports with OECD. It further concluded that tariff barriers created by countries to offsets environmental regulation costs would prove counterproductive to competitiveness. At the policy level, instead of lobbing for protectionism to balance out environmental regulatory costs, the governments in both developed and developing countries need to focus on forming better environmental policies fostering both competitiveness and environmental quality. Also, trade-offs between environmental regulations and competitiveness are challenging situations for South Asia and OECD countries. Therefore, sustainable production and trade policies combined with innovative and cost-effective environmental policies are needed to accomplish environmental gains and competitiveness.

No description available.

The tourism industry is an extremely competitive industry which is mainly caused by the ever changing needs of tourists. However, despite the constant change in tourist behaviour, violent terrorist attacks on countries across the globe and the weakening of the world economies, the tourism industry showed significant growth over the last few decades. The fast growth rate of tourism has also lead to the tourist being more aware of ecotourism destinations and the key role these destinations play in conserving the natural and cultural environments in the midst of globalisation and urbanisation. The pressure on ecotourism destinations such as national parks is increasing as more and more natural land are being taken up for urban development. In the case of South African National Parks (SANParks), the decrease in government funding pressurizes the resources and national parks have to identify ways to generate their own income through tourism activities. SANParks manages 22 national parks across South Africa with the aim to conserve South Africa’s biodiversity, provide recreational activities for tourists and build long-term relationships with the local communities to enhance the communities’ quality of life. Hence, in order to remain competitive it is important to determine the parks' competitive advantages. Therefore the aim of this study was to develop a competitiveness model for SANParks by using the Kruger National Park as case study. The Kruger National Park is not only one of the largest and most recognised national parks in the world, but also boasts with a large variety of fauna and flora, variety of accommodation facilities such as bush lodges, chalets and camping facilities as well as various tourist activities. The literature review indicated that destinations differ from each other and therefore ecotourism destinations such as national parks would have a distinct set of competitive advantage factors. However, these factors can only be determined if the needs of tourists are anticipated and park specific products and services are developed to satisfy the needs of visitors to the park and ultimately lead to tourist loyalty. Once a competitive position has been established, a national park can obtain benefits such as an increase in tourist numbers and revenue delivery of high quality products and services at the park as well as trigger a higher quality of life for the local community. If managed accordingly, the park might experience sustainable growth as well as increased profit margins. The data for the study was collected by means of a questionnaire survey at four of the Kruger National Park's rest camps during the period 26 December 2013 and 4 January 2014 which is the festive season in South Africa. The rest camps that were included in this survey were Olifants (74 questionnaires); Skukuza (213 questionnaires); Lower Sabie (98 questionnaires) and Berg-&-Dal (51 questionnaires). A total of 436 completed questionnaires were administered and further analysed. Descriptive statistics were used to profile the respondents while two factor analyses were done on the competitive advantage factors and tourist motives for travelling to the Park. The factor analyses identified five competitive advantage factors of which Wildlife Experiences and Marketing and Branding were regarded as the most important factors. The other three competitive advantage factors were Accommodation and Retail, Visitor Management and Suprastructure and Amenities. Four motivational factors were identified namely Experience and Relaxation, Lifestyle, All-Inclusive Destination and Value. The identified factors were further used in an ANOVA analysis and the results showed that socio-demographic characteristics such as home language, province of residence, level of education and marital status have all significant differences based on the five competitive advantage factors as well as the four motivational factors The t-test analysis presented a few statistical significant differences between the independent variables or group of individuals. These differences were based on the respondents’ demographic and behaviour characteristics with regards to the competitive advantage and motivational factors. However, the strongest statistically significant differences were based on the behavioural characteristics of tourists travelling with children to the Park, Wild card holders, tourist reading magazines, previous visits to the Park and differences between tourists making use of chalets and camping facilities. A Structural Equation Model was applied to confirm the results that were obtained from the analyses. The SEM indicated that tourists’ motivations have a significant influence on the factors that tourists identified as competitive advantage factors for the Kruger National Park. This research made three distinct new contributions. Firstly, competitive advantage factors were specifically identified for ecotourism based destinations such as national parks from a demand side. Also, the tourists motivation for travelling proved to hugely influence these competitive advantage factors. Secondly, a competitiveness model was developed specifically for national parks within South Africa. The proposed model could assist national parks across South Africa to obtain a competitive advantage among its competitors based on park specific factors. Lastly, the concept of competitiveness has not yet been applied within the ecotourism and nature-based tourism destinations context. This study described the concept of competitiveness with the focus on national parks as ecotourism destinations and the aspects that need to be taken into consideration when analysing the concept in such a context. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The tourism industry is an extremely competitive industry which is mainly caused by the ever changing needs of tourists. However, despite the constant change in tourist behaviour, violent terrorist attacks on countries across the globe and the weakening of the world economies, the tourism industry showed significant growth over the last few decades. The fast growth rate of tourism has also lead to the tourist being more aware of ecotourism destinations and the key role these destinations play in conserving the natural and cultural environments in the midst of globalisation and urbanisation. The pressure on ecotourism destinations such as national parks is increasing as more and more natural land are being taken up for urban development. In the case of South African National Parks (SANParks), the decrease in government funding pressurizes the resources and national parks have to identify ways to generate their own income through tourism activities. SANParks manages 22 national parks across South Africa with the aim to conserve South Africa’s biodiversity, provide recreational activities for tourists and build long-term relationships with the local communities to enhance the communities’ quality of life. Hence, in order to remain competitive it is important to determine the parks' competitive advantages. Therefore the aim of this study was to develop a competitiveness model for SANParks by using the Kruger National Park as case study. The Kruger National Park is not only one of the largest and most recognised national parks in the world, but also boasts with a large variety of fauna and flora, variety of accommodation facilities such as bush lodges, chalets and camping facilities as well as various tourist activities. The literature review indicated that destinations differ from each other and therefore ecotourism destinations such as national parks would have a distinct set of competitive advantage factors. However, these factors can only be determined if the needs of tourists are anticipated and park specific products and services are developed to satisfy the needs of visitors to the park and ultimately lead to tourist loyalty. Once a competitive position has been established, a national park can obtain benefits such as an increase in tourist numbers and revenue delivery of high quality products and services at the park as well as trigger a higher quality of life for the local community. If managed accordingly, the park might experience sustainable growth as well as increased profit margins. The data for the study was collected by means of a questionnaire survey at four of the Kruger National Park's rest camps during the period 26 December 2013 and 4 January 2014 which is the festive season in South Africa. The rest camps that were included in this survey were Olifants (74 questionnaires); Skukuza (213 questionnaires); Lower Sabie (98 questionnaires) and Berg-&-Dal (51 questionnaires). A total of 436 completed questionnaires were administered and further analysed. Descriptive statistics were used to profile the respondents while two factor analyses were done on the competitive advantage factors and tourist motives for travelling to the Park. The factor analyses identified five competitive advantage factors of which Wildlife Experiences and Marketing and Branding were regarded as the most important factors. The other three competitive advantage factors were Accommodation and Retail, Visitor Management and Suprastructure and Amenities. Four motivational factors were identified namely Experience and Relaxation, Lifestyle, All-Inclusive Destination and Value. The identified factors were further used in an ANOVA analysis and the results showed that socio-demographic characteristics such as home language, province of residence, level of education and marital status have all significant differences based on the five competitive advantage factors as well as the four motivational factors The t-test analysis presented a few statistical significant differences between the independent variables or group of individuals. These differences were based on the respondents’ demographic and behaviour characteristics with regards to the competitive advantage and motivational factors. However, the strongest statistically significant differences were based on the behavioural characteristics of tourists travelling with children to the Park, Wild card holders, tourist reading magazines, previous visits to the Park and differences between tourists making use of chalets and camping facilities. A Structural Equation Model was applied to confirm the results that were obtained from the analyses. The SEM indicated that tourists’ motivations have a significant influence on the factors that tourists identified as competitive advantage factors for the Kruger National Park. This research made three distinct new contributions. Firstly, competitive advantage factors were specifically identified for ecotourism based destinations such as national parks from a demand side. Also, the tourists motivation for travelling proved to hugely influence these competitive advantage factors. Secondly, a competitiveness model was developed specifically for national parks within South Africa. The proposed model could assist national parks across South Africa to obtain a competitive advantage among its competitors based on park specific factors. Lastly, the concept of competitiveness has not yet been applied within the ecotourism and nature-based tourism destinations context. This study described the concept of competitiveness with the focus on national parks as ecotourism destinations and the aspects that need to be taken into consideration when analysing the concept in such a context. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Cette thèse a pour objectif de montrer que Marx et Keynes, par des analyses distinctes, aboutissentà une même conclusion qui conserve un sens aujourd’hui : la cause ultime de la crise résidedans l’excès de concurrence. De là suit que le protectionnisme, conçu comme une régulation des effetsde la concurrence sur l’économie nationale, est, en fin de compte, une protection contre la crise.La première partie de ce travail traite de la période allant de Ricardo à Marx. Dans un premierchapitre, est exposé le modèle de Ricardo et les critiques qui l’ont accompagné. Au nombre de sesdétracteurs figure Marx dont notre deuxième chapitre montre que la théorie peut être lue commeappelant au protectionnisme dès lors que son analyse est replacée dans un objectif de survie ducapitalisme. La seconde partie justifie l’existence et démontre le bien-fondé d’un protectionnismekeynésien. Le troisième chapitre établit la découverte, par Keynes, de la nécessité de proposer unprotectionnisme de sauvegarde et montre que cette conclusion a été largement perdue de vue dansles interprétations de sa pensée. Enfin, le quatrième chapitre, par une lecture circuitiste de Keynes,met en garde contre les effets pervers du libre-échange sur les deux composantes essentielles de lademande que sont la consommation et surtout l’investissement. / This thesis aims to show that, despite separate analyses, Marx and Keynes support a similarconclusion which preserves a meaning today : the ultimate cause of the crisis is excessive competition.It follows that protectionism as a regulation of the effects of competition on national economyis ultimately a protection against the crisis. The first part of this work covers the period fromRicardo to Marx. The first chapter outlines the Ricardo model and the criticisms who accompaniedit. Marx was part of these detractors. From a survival of capitalism perspective, the secondchapter shows that his theory can be interpreted as a call for protectionism. The second part justifiesthe existence and demonstrates the validity of Keynesian protectionism. The third chapterestablishes the Keynes’ discovery of the necessity to use protection as a guarantee against crises.This conclusion has been widely lost sight of by those who interpreted his thought. Finally chapterfour warns against the negative effects of free trade on two essential components of demand namelyconsumption and, foremost, investment. We do so using a circuitist approach.