Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Texas at Arlington, 2009.

Thesis (M.S.)--Ohio University, August, 1998. / Title from PDF t.p.

The overall objectives of this thesis are to determine if Indirect and Direct Design methods currently used for reinforced concrete pipe are able to accurately predict the capacity of the pipe, to identify discrepancies between the two methods, and to provide potential modifications to the methods to reduce inconsistencies. As part of this investigation, two 0.6 m pipes (nominal strength classes 100-D and a 140-D) and two 1.2 m pipes (a 65-D with Wall B and a 65-D with Wall C) were tested under single wheel pair loading at burial depths of 1.2, 0.6 and 0.3 m. The test pipes did not crack at the applied service load of 110 kN and did not pass the crack width limit until between 2.5 and 4 times the service load. A 0.6 m 100-D pipe was also tested under simulated deep burial and it was found that the calculated test D-Load is 1.9 times greater than the designated D-Load of the test pipe. It was found that both methods were conservative and that the Direct Design method should be modified to more closely align with the Indirect Design. An investigation of the Direct Design parameters found that by considering thick ring theory and the Modified Compression Field Theory with two layers of reinforcement, the required amount of steel from Direct Design could be made to align very closely with the Indirect Design. An additional test was completed to further assess the Direct Design method on a 0.6 m 140-D pipe to measure the pressure around the circumference of the pipe and compare this measured pressure to the commonly used pressure distribution for Direct Design. The results show that at the minimum cover (0.3 m) the test pressure is higher than predicted at the crown, lower than predicted at the invert, and nearly zero at the shoulder, springline, and haunch, which is inconsistent with most of the predicted results at these locations. / Thesis (Master, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2014-06-20 16:29:39.037

Os estudos focando a otimização do reforço dos tubos de concreto para obras de saneamento são importantes por estes componentes estarem vinculados a grandes necessidades sociais que ainda atingem o Brasil e outros países em desenvolvimento bem como pelo fato destes componentes serem produzidos em série, o que gera economia de escala. Neste sentido, a utilização de fibras como reforço dos tubos trás consigo um grande número de vantagens aplicativas e de desempenho. A tendência internacional de busca por um consenso no dimensionamento e controle do concreto reforçado com fibras (CRF) como material estrutural está sendo direcionada para o fib Model Code 2010. Geralmente, para a caracterização do CRF são utilizados os ensaios de flexão de vigas. Porém, a moldagem desses corpos de prova para o controle do CRF dos tubos apresentou resultados inadequados em estudos anteriores. A definição do reforço ótimo de tubos de CRF através da tentativa e erro no ensaio de compressão diametral do componente deve ser evitada pelos elevados gastos (financeiros, de material e tempo) associados a esta metodologia. O projeto deve ser atingido através de modelos confiáveis que possam otimizar o reforço através da previsão adequada do desempenho do componente. Da mesma forma, deve-se obter procedimentos de controle do material que sejam concatenados com os procedimentos de controle do produto. Neste sentido, esta tese propõe uma metodologia para a caracterização e controle do comportamento mecânico do CRF para a produção de tubos, que permita modelar o comportamento do componente no ensaio de compressão diametral e verificar sua adequação a uma aplicação estrutural. O estudo foi dividido em três fases principais. Na primeira houve a avaliação de um método de ensaio alternativo ao de flexão de prismas para o controle do CRF. Na segunda fase experimental houve a incorporação de modificações no método de ensaio de compressão diametral do componente de modo a aproximá-lo à filosofia do fib Model Code 2010. Nesta etapa foram avaliados tubos com reforço de fibras de aço, macrofibras poliméricas e vergalhões para comprovar a pertinência da nova metodologia de ensaio. Na terceira fase do estudo foi realizada uma simulação numérica para previsão de comportamento dos componentes ensaiados utilizando os parâmetros do material caracterizados através do método de ensaio alternativo validado na primeira fase. Os resultados obtidos na modelagem foram comparados com o resultado experimental do ensaio do componente de modo a validar a metodologia proposta. Os resultados demonstraram a adequação do ensaio Barcelona para a caracterização e controle do comportamento mecânico do CRF destinado à produção de tubos. Essa caracterização poderá subsidiar simulações numéricas do comportamento do componente no ensaio de compressão diametral. Com isto, ábacos de projeto de tubos de concreto reforçados com diferentes tipos de fibras poderão ser desenvolvidos, identificando as classes resistentes que serão atendidas dependendo do diâmetro do tubo e do teor de fibras empregados. Esta tese aponta também para a necessidade de uma revisão na normalização vigente, estabelecendo critérios relacionados ao comportamento pós-fissuração que avaliem o estado limite de serviço e o estado limite último. Isto permitirá uma avaliação homogênea do tipo de reforço e tornará mais adequada a comparação entre distintos tipos de reforço (fibras ou convencional). / The international trend for a consensus about the design and control of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) as a structural material is based on the fib Model Code 2010. Generally, in order to characterize the FRC, bending tests are used. However, the moulding of these control test specimens of the FRC pipes is not quite simple as has been shown by previous studies. The design of FRC pipes through trial and error in the component-crushing test should be avoided. This test shall be limited to the acceptance control or final validation of a new component, designed through reliable models that optimize the reinforcement and the component performance. These models should allow both design and prediction of the component behaviour related to the quality control. In that sense, this thesis proposes a methodology for characterizing and controlling the mechanical behaviour of FRC for the production of pipes. This study allows modelling the component behaviour in crushing test and verifying their suitability for structural application. The methodology considered consisted in three main topics: evaluation of an alternative method of FRC control test; modification of the procedure of the crushing test method in order to approach the fib Model Code 2010 philosophy, and prediction the mechanical behaviour of the components comparing numerical simulation results with experiments results. In this last topic, the characterization of the materials performance by the alternative test method was considered. The results indicated that the Barcelona test is suitable in order to characterize and control the mechanical behaviour of the FRC used for the production of pipes. This characterization is able to support numerical simulations of the component behaviour in crushing test. It allows the development of design tables identifying the pipes resistant classes considering a variety of parameters such as types and contents of fibres and pipes diameters. This thesis also points out the need for a review of the current standards, establishing parameters related to the post-cracking behaviour to assess the serviceability limit state and the ultimate limit state. This allows a homogeneous evaluation of the reinforcement type and makes it more suited to comparing different types of reinforcement (fibre or conventional).

Concrete structures can often be modeled as plates, for example, bridges, tunnel walls and pipes. Near-surface damage in concrete structures mostly takes the form of cracking. Surface-breaking cracks affect concrete properties and structural integrity; therefore, the nondestructive evaluation of crack depth is important for structural monitoring, strengthening and rehabilitation. On the other hand, material damping is a fundamental parameter for the dynamic analysis of material specimens and structures. Monitoring damping changes is useful for the assessment of material conditions and structural deterioration. The main objective of this research is to develop new methodologies for depth evaluation of surface-breaking cracks and the evaluation of damping in concrete plates. Nondestructive techniques based on wave propagation are useful because they are non-intrusive, efficient and cost effective. Previous studies for the depth evaluation of surface-breaking cracks in concrete have used diffracted compressional waves (P-waves). However, surface waves exhibit better properties for the characterization of near surface defects, because (a) surface waves dominate the surface response, they carry 67% of the wave propagation energy, and present lower geometrical attenuation because the propagating wave front is cylindrical; and (b) the penetration depth of Rayleigh waves (R-waves) depends on their frequency. Most of the R-wave energy concentrates at a depth of one-third of their wavelengths. The transmission of R-waves through a surface-breaking crack depends on the crack depth; this depth sensitivity is the basis for the so-called Fourier transmission coefficient (FTC) method. R-waves only exist in a half-space (one traction-free surface); whereas in the case of a plate (two traction-free surfaces), Lamb modes are generated. Fundamental Lamb modes behave like R-waves at high frequencies, because their wavelengths are small relative to the plate thickness. Lamb modes are not considered in the standard FTC method, and the FTC method is also affected by the selected spacing between receivers. The FTC calculation requires the use of an explicit time window for the identification of the arrival of surface waves, and the selection of a reliable frequency range. This research presents theoretical, numerical and experimental results. Theoretical aspects of Lamb modes are discussed, and a theoretical transfer function is derived, which can be used to study changes of Lamb modes in the time and frequency domains as a function of distance. The maximum amplitude of the wavelet transform varies with distance because of the dispersion of Lamb modes and the participation of higher Lamb modes in the response. Numerical simulations are conducted to study the wave propagation of Lamb modes through a surface-breaking crack with different depths. The surface response is found to be dominated by the fundamental Lamb mode. Using the 2D Fourier transform, the incident, transmitted and reflected fundamental Lamb modes are extracted. A transmission ratio between the transmitted and incident modes is calculated, which is sensitive to crack depths (d) normalized to the wavelength (λ) in a range (d / λ) = 0.1 to 1/3. A new wavelet transmission coefficient (WTC) method for the depth evaluation of surface-breaking cracks in concrete is proposed to overcome the main limitations of the FTC method. The WTC method gives a global coefficient that is correlated with the crack depth, which does not require time windowing and the pre-selection of a frequency bandwidth. To reduce the effects of wave reflections, which are present in the FTC method because of the non-equal spacing configuration, a new equal spacing configuration is used in the WTC method. The effects of Lamb mode dispersion are also reduced. In laboratory tests, an ultrasonic transmitter with central frequency at 50kHz is used as a source; the 50kHz frequency is appropriate for the concrete plate tested (thickness 80mm), because the fundamental Lamb modes have converged to the Rayleigh wave mode. The new method has also been used in-situ at Hanson Pipe and Precast Inc., Cambridge, Ontario, Canada, and it shows potential for practical applications. In general, the evaluation of material damping is more difficult than the measurement of wave velocity; the dynamic response and attenuation of structural vibrations are predominantly controlled by damping, and the damping is typically evaluated using the modal analysis technique, which requires considerable efforts. The existing methods based on surface waves, use the Fourier transform to measure material damping; however, an explicit time window is required for the spectral ratio method to extract the arrival of surface wave; in addition, a slope of the spectral ratio varies for different frequency ranges, and thus a reliable frequency range needs to be determined. This research uses the wavelet transform to measure material damping in plates, where neither an explicit time window nor the pre-selection of a frequency bandwidth are required. The measured material damping represents an average damping for a frequency range determined by source. Both numerical and experimental results show good agreement and the potential for practical applications.

Concrete structures can often be modeled as plates, for example, bridges, tunnel walls and pipes. Near-surface damage in concrete structures mostly takes the form of cracking. Surface-breaking cracks affect concrete properties and structural integrity; therefore, the nondestructive evaluation of crack depth is important for structural monitoring, strengthening and rehabilitation. On the other hand, material damping is a fundamental parameter for the dynamic analysis of material specimens and structures. Monitoring damping changes is useful for the assessment of material conditions and structural deterioration. The main objective of this research is to develop new methodologies for depth evaluation of surface-breaking cracks and the evaluation of damping in concrete plates. Nondestructive techniques based on wave propagation are useful because they are non-intrusive, efficient and cost effective. Previous studies for the depth evaluation of surface-breaking cracks in concrete have used diffracted compressional waves (P-waves). However, surface waves exhibit better properties for the characterization of near surface defects, because (a) surface waves dominate the surface response, they carry 67% of the wave propagation energy, and present lower geometrical attenuation because the propagating wave front is cylindrical; and (b) the penetration depth of Rayleigh waves (R-waves) depends on their frequency. Most of the R-wave energy concentrates at a depth of one-third of their wavelengths. The transmission of R-waves through a surface-breaking crack depends on the crack depth; this depth sensitivity is the basis for the so-called Fourier transmission coefficient (FTC) method. R-waves only exist in a half-space (one traction-free surface); whereas in the case of a plate (two traction-free surfaces), Lamb modes are generated. Fundamental Lamb modes behave like R-waves at high frequencies, because their wavelengths are small relative to the plate thickness. Lamb modes are not considered in the standard FTC method, and the FTC method is also affected by the selected spacing between receivers. The FTC calculation requires the use of an explicit time window for the identification of the arrival of surface waves, and the selection of a reliable frequency range. This research presents theoretical, numerical and experimental results. Theoretical aspects of Lamb modes are discussed, and a theoretical transfer function is derived, which can be used to study changes of Lamb modes in the time and frequency domains as a function of distance. The maximum amplitude of the wavelet transform varies with distance because of the dispersion of Lamb modes and the participation of higher Lamb modes in the response. Numerical simulations are conducted to study the wave propagation of Lamb modes through a surface-breaking crack with different depths. The surface response is found to be dominated by the fundamental Lamb mode. Using the 2D Fourier transform, the incident, transmitted and reflected fundamental Lamb modes are extracted. A transmission ratio between the transmitted and incident modes is calculated, which is sensitive to crack depths (d) normalized to the wavelength (λ) in a range (d / λ) = 0.1 to 1/3. A new wavelet transmission coefficient (WTC) method for the depth evaluation of surface-breaking cracks in concrete is proposed to overcome the main limitations of the FTC method. The WTC method gives a global coefficient that is correlated with the crack depth, which does not require time windowing and the pre-selection of a frequency bandwidth. To reduce the effects of wave reflections, which are present in the FTC method because of the non-equal spacing configuration, a new equal spacing configuration is used in the WTC method. The effects of Lamb mode dispersion are also reduced. In laboratory tests, an ultrasonic transmitter with central frequency at 50kHz is used as a source; the 50kHz frequency is appropriate for the concrete plate tested (thickness 80mm), because the fundamental Lamb modes have converged to the Rayleigh wave mode. The new method has also been used in-situ at Hanson Pipe and Precast Inc., Cambridge, Ontario, Canada, and it shows potential for practical applications. In general, the evaluation of material damping is more difficult than the measurement of wave velocity; the dynamic response and attenuation of structural vibrations are predominantly controlled by damping, and the damping is typically evaluated using the modal analysis technique, which requires considerable efforts. The existing methods based on surface waves, use the Fourier transform to measure material damping; however, an explicit time window is required for the spectral ratio method to extract the arrival of surface wave; in addition, a slope of the spectral ratio varies for different frequency ranges, and thus a reliable frequency range needs to be determined. This research uses the wavelet transform to measure material damping in plates, where neither an explicit time window nor the pre-selection of a frequency bandwidth are required. The measured material damping represents an average damping for a frequency range determined by source. Both numerical and experimental results show good agreement and the potential for practical applications.

Die Arbeit ist der Weiterentwicklung der Formgebungs- und Verdichtungsausrüstungen zur Herstellung von Beton- und Stahlbetonrohren gewidmet. Es werden die Grundlagen für eine schwingungstechnische Auslegung von Betonrohrfertigern mit stehendem und steigendem Kern geschaffen. Den Ausgangspunkt bildet die Untersuchung des Verdichtungsprozesses in Rohrfertigern und der Einflußgrößen auf die Vibrationsverdichtung des Betongemenges. Es werden experimentelle Untersuchungen an einem Versuchsstand und praktische industrielle Erfahrungen dargestellt. Für die schwingungstechnische Auslegung der Verdichtungseinrichtung von Rohrfertigern werden diskrete Modelle mit analytischen Lösungen sowie Modelle zur numerischen Simulation auf der Basis der Mehrkörperdynamik und der Finite-Elemente-Methode gebildet. Es erfolgen Empfehlungen zur Auslegung und Ansätze zur Weiterentwicklung von Rohrfertiger.

Os estudos focando a otimização do reforço dos tubos de concreto para obras de saneamento são importantes por estes componentes estarem vinculados a grandes necessidades sociais que ainda atingem o Brasil e outros países em desenvolvimento bem como pelo fato destes componentes serem produzidos em série, o que gera economia de escala. Neste sentido, a utilização de fibras como reforço dos tubos trás consigo um grande número de vantagens aplicativas e de desempenho. A tendência internacional de busca por um consenso no dimensionamento e controle do concreto reforçado com fibras (CRF) como material estrutural está sendo direcionada para o fib Model Code 2010. Geralmente, para a caracterização do CRF são utilizados os ensaios de flexão de vigas. Porém, a moldagem desses corpos de prova para o controle do CRF dos tubos apresentou resultados inadequados em estudos anteriores. A definição do reforço ótimo de tubos de CRF através da tentativa e erro no ensaio de compressão diametral do componente deve ser evitada pelos elevados gastos (financeiros, de material e tempo) associados a esta metodologia. O projeto deve ser atingido através de modelos confiáveis que possam otimizar o reforço através da previsão adequada do desempenho do componente. Da mesma forma, deve-se obter procedimentos de controle do material que sejam concatenados com os procedimentos de controle do produto. Neste sentido, esta tese propõe uma metodologia para a caracterização e controle do comportamento mecânico do CRF para a produção de tubos, que permita modelar o comportamento do componente no ensaio de compressão diametral e verificar sua adequação a uma aplicação estrutural. O estudo foi dividido em três fases principais. Na primeira houve a avaliação de um método de ensaio alternativo ao de flexão de prismas para o controle do CRF. Na segunda fase experimental houve a incorporação de modificações no método de ensaio de compressão diametral do componente de modo a aproximá-lo à filosofia do fib Model Code 2010. Nesta etapa foram avaliados tubos com reforço de fibras de aço, macrofibras poliméricas e vergalhões para comprovar a pertinência da nova metodologia de ensaio. Na terceira fase do estudo foi realizada uma simulação numérica para previsão de comportamento dos componentes ensaiados utilizando os parâmetros do material caracterizados através do método de ensaio alternativo validado na primeira fase. Os resultados obtidos na modelagem foram comparados com o resultado experimental do ensaio do componente de modo a validar a metodologia proposta. Os resultados demonstraram a adequação do ensaio Barcelona para a caracterização e controle do comportamento mecânico do CRF destinado à produção de tubos. Essa caracterização poderá subsidiar simulações numéricas do comportamento do componente no ensaio de compressão diametral. Com isto, ábacos de projeto de tubos de concreto reforçados com diferentes tipos de fibras poderão ser desenvolvidos, identificando as classes resistentes que serão atendidas dependendo do diâmetro do tubo e do teor de fibras empregados. Esta tese aponta também para a necessidade de uma revisão na normalização vigente, estabelecendo critérios relacionados ao comportamento pós-fissuração que avaliem o estado limite de serviço e o estado limite último. Isto permitirá uma avaliação homogênea do tipo de reforço e tornará mais adequada a comparação entre distintos tipos de reforço (fibras ou convencional). / The international trend for a consensus about the design and control of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) as a structural material is based on the fib Model Code 2010. Generally, in order to characterize the FRC, bending tests are used. However, the moulding of these control test specimens of the FRC pipes is not quite simple as has been shown by previous studies. The design of FRC pipes through trial and error in the component-crushing test should be avoided. This test shall be limited to the acceptance control or final validation of a new component, designed through reliable models that optimize the reinforcement and the component performance. These models should allow both design and prediction of the component behaviour related to the quality control. In that sense, this thesis proposes a methodology for characterizing and controlling the mechanical behaviour of FRC for the production of pipes. This study allows modelling the component behaviour in crushing test and verifying their suitability for structural application. The methodology considered consisted in three main topics: evaluation of an alternative method of FRC control test; modification of the procedure of the crushing test method in order to approach the fib Model Code 2010 philosophy, and prediction the mechanical behaviour of the components comparing numerical simulation results with experiments results. In this last topic, the characterization of the materials performance by the alternative test method was considered. The results indicated that the Barcelona test is suitable in order to characterize and control the mechanical behaviour of the FRC used for the production of pipes. This characterization is able to support numerical simulations of the component behaviour in crushing test. It allows the development of design tables identifying the pipes resistant classes considering a variety of parameters such as types and contents of fibres and pipes diameters. This thesis also points out the need for a review of the current standards, establishing parameters related to the post-cracking behaviour to assess the serviceability limit state and the ultimate limit state. This allows a homogeneous evaluation of the reinforcement type and makes it more suited to comparing different types of reinforcement (fibre or conventional).

Large diameter concrete pipes have been used in many areas of central Florida to carry pressured sewage flow. These pipes have been typically located at six feet below finished roadway elevation, and ranges in diameter from thirty six to sixty inches. The water table is typically located at shallow depth below finished roadway elevation, and generally fluctuates between five to ten feet depending on the relative roadway elevation to mean sea level. These pipes are under pressure when carrying the sewage flow, but return to normal atmospheric pressures when the flow stops. Since the water table encases most of the pipe circumference, no leaks is developed from the water table to the pipe when the pipe is under pressure. Once the pressure in the pipes returns to zero, the water starts seeping into the pipe while washing the subgrade with it into the pipe's interior. The subgrade washes into the pipe at the joint inverts between adjacent pieces of the pipe, since the invert is where the most tension exists in the joint under the weight of the soil and traffic loading above the pipe, making it the most probable location where a gap in the joint would form. This would cause the origination of a small void under the pipe, which creates pressure redistribution in the subgrade reaction under the pipe. As the void develops in the middle third of the bedding under the invert, pressure redistribution occurs to the outer two thirds of the bedding. As the stress increases in the outer portions of the bedding, more subgrade material is washed into the pipe when it is not under pressure, making the void larger. As the void becomes large, the moment in the pipe is greatly increased, and therefore the gap in the joint is increased due to the tension increase at the bottom of the pipe. More material is allowed into the pipe, and the void becomes deeper as fewer restrictions are encountered between the water table and the empty pipe. As the pipe becomes pressurized, more subgrade material is disturbed by the leak from the inside of the pipe to the outside, and void is constantly generated. The void then leads to the continuous settlement of the roadway. It is intended by this study to model the stresses in the subgrade around the pipe using a finite element software to determine the effects of void in the pipe's bedding on the stress around the pipe's outer perimeter. The stresses calculated as a result of the void will then be used in determining the increase in internal moment created in the pipe as the void is generated and became larger and deeper. Average stresses on the top and bottom of the pipe were calculated due to the soil profile dead load and live load caused by loading the soil profile with one and two HS-20 trucks. The average stresses were recalculated after the addition of void in the pipe bedding. The void width and depth were varied to come up with the case that would generate the highest unbalanced load on the pipe. The average bottom stress was subtracted from the average top stress to determine the unbalanced load on the pipe that would cause an internal moment in the pipe. At the most critical case, a forty kilo pounds per foot moment was caused by the existence of the void under the sixty inch diameter pipe used in the model. Such a moment is large to be resisted by either the pipe alone or the pipe reinforced by an additional structural support, unless such support is accompanied by void decrease and a mean to stop the subgrade from eroding into the pipe.

The goals of this research are to develop and validate the use of distributed fibre optic sensors for use in strain monitoring of buried culverts, and to use full-scale experiments to evaluate the performance of both deteriorated steel and reinforced concrete culverts rehabilitated with grouted slipliners subjected to surface loading. Bench scale experiments were conducted to evaluate the use of fibre optic sensors against conventional strain sensors. Then, fibre optic sensors were attached to a full-scale culvert that was tested in a buried state as a proof of concept. Finally, fibre optic sensors were used in two large scale buried pipe tests to explore the performance of rehabilitated flexible and rigid culverts. A deteriorated steel culvert was tested in a buried state under surface loading, then rehabilitated with a grouted high density polyethylene (HDPE) slipliner while still in a buried state and tested under surface loading at 0.9 m and 0.6 m burial depths. The rehabilitated steel pipe was tested under service loading, and up to 1250 kN of applied load. The results suggested that the grouted annulus stiffened the overall structure, and increased the capacity of the system to over 3 times the fully factored design load. A deteriorated reinforced concrete culvert was tested and rehabilitated in a similar fashion. The grout in the annulus penetrated the cracks at the crown, invert and joint of the concrete pipeline. The lined concrete pipe was tested to 1200 kN under single axle loading, and to 800 kN under single wheel loading. The results suggested that while the concrete pipe was stiffened by the grout, it remained the primary contributor to structural capacity, with the liner contributing little to the capacity. Repair reduced the diameter change by an average of 90%, with the capacity reaching approximately 3.3 and 4.2 times the design loads for single axle and single wheel pair loading, respectively. The maximum response was under single axle loading over the barrels of the concrete pipe. In no instance did the structures reach an ultimate limit state, and the tests were stopped after bearing failure of the soil occurred. / Thesis (Master, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2013-11-28 17:24:50.815