O acesso à energia elétrica é requisito essencial para a elevação da qualidade de vida e do bem-estar social, daí a necessidade de elaborar-se políticas sociais quando houver insuficiência de acesso a este serviço público. No Brasil, a atual programa de governo com este objetivo emprega uma tarifa social de baixa renda, a qual concede descontos graduados nas tarifas de energia conforme o nível de consumo no domicílio, e com isso aumenta o bem-estar da população. Entretanto, no decorrer dos anos, a tarifa de energia elétrica vem sendo utilizada para arrecadar recursos financeiros para o governo através de uma carga tributária crescente, o que eleva o preço da eletricidade e, conseqüentemente, restringe o seu consumo, afetando negativamente o bem-estar dos consumidores. Diante desta situação aparentemente paradoxal, é importante discutir os seus efeitos e analisar alternativas para aprimorar a política social adotada. É a isto que este estudo se dedica. Para isso, primeiramente são estimados os efeitos no bem-estar dos consumidores ocasionados tanto pela cobrança de encargos e impostos na tarifa de energia, quanto pelo atual programa social de tarifa de baixa renda. Comparando-se estes efeitos opostos, calcula-se qual deles é preponderante, ou seja, qual é o seu resultado líquido. Passa-se a seguir neste estudo ao exame de uma proposta de alternativas diferentes para uma política de desconto nos encargos e impostos cobrados no consumo de energia elétrica. / The access to electricity is essential for the improvement of the quality of life and welfare of the citizens. Therefore, it is necessary to create social policies in case of deficient access to this utility. Aiming at boosting the quality of life and the welfare of the population, the current Brazilian governmental program applies a special taxation system for the low income families, which grants them gradual discounts according to their home consumption. However, in the last years, the electricity tax has been used to raise funds for the government through an increasing tax load, which increases the utility price and restricts its consumption. As a result, the consumers welfare is negatively affected. Before this apparently paradoxical situation, it is important to discuss its effect and analyze alternatives to improve the adopted social policy. That is the aim of this study. Firstly, the effects on the consumers welfare resulting not only from the increase of electricity charges and taxation but also from the social program for low income families will be studied. Secondly, by comparing these two contradictory effects, the predominant one, that is, the net profit, will be estimated. Finally, a proposal for different alternatives of a discount policy in electricity charges and taxation will be examined.

O acesso à energia elétrica é requisito essencial para a elevação da qualidade de vida e do bem-estar social, daí a necessidade de elaborar-se políticas sociais quando houver insuficiência de acesso a este serviço público. No Brasil, a atual programa de governo com este objetivo emprega uma tarifa social de baixa renda, a qual concede descontos graduados nas tarifas de energia conforme o nível de consumo no domicílio, e com isso aumenta o bem-estar da população. Entretanto, no decorrer dos anos, a tarifa de energia elétrica vem sendo utilizada para arrecadar recursos financeiros para o governo através de uma carga tributária crescente, o que eleva o preço da eletricidade e, conseqüentemente, restringe o seu consumo, afetando negativamente o bem-estar dos consumidores. Diante desta situação aparentemente paradoxal, é importante discutir os seus efeitos e analisar alternativas para aprimorar a política social adotada. É a isto que este estudo se dedica. Para isso, primeiramente são estimados os efeitos no bem-estar dos consumidores ocasionados tanto pela cobrança de encargos e impostos na tarifa de energia, quanto pelo atual programa social de tarifa de baixa renda. Comparando-se estes efeitos opostos, calcula-se qual deles é preponderante, ou seja, qual é o seu resultado líquido. Passa-se a seguir neste estudo ao exame de uma proposta de alternativas diferentes para uma política de desconto nos encargos e impostos cobrados no consumo de energia elétrica. / The access to electricity is essential for the improvement of the quality of life and welfare of the citizens. Therefore, it is necessary to create social policies in case of deficient access to this utility. Aiming at boosting the quality of life and the welfare of the population, the current Brazilian governmental program applies a special taxation system for the low income families, which grants them gradual discounts according to their home consumption. However, in the last years, the electricity tax has been used to raise funds for the government through an increasing tax load, which increases the utility price and restricts its consumption. As a result, the consumers welfare is negatively affected. Before this apparently paradoxical situation, it is important to discuss its effect and analyze alternatives to improve the adopted social policy. That is the aim of this study. Firstly, the effects on the consumers welfare resulting not only from the increase of electricity charges and taxation but also from the social program for low income families will be studied. Secondly, by comparing these two contradictory effects, the predominant one, that is, the net profit, will be estimated. Finally, a proposal for different alternatives of a discount policy in electricity charges and taxation will be examined.

Dans ma thèse, j’étudie les représentations mentales et les processus cognitifs qui sous-tendent le calcul mental sur le marché. Cette thèse contribue à la recherche de prix psychologique en décrivant de nouveaux facteurs qui influencent les jugements de prix des consommateurs. En particulier, je découvre facteurs qui rendent les consommateurs plus ou moins susceptibles d’arrondir les prix vers le bas (Essai 1) et les facteurs qui déterminent leur tendance à se fixer sur les différences de pourcentage (Essai 3). En outre, cette recherche fournit de nouvelles perspectives à la littérature de budgétisation mentale en identifiant des stratégies de calcul mental qui conduisent à des estimations panier de prix plus précis (Essay 2). Dans l'ensemble, ma recherche va contribuer à notre compréhension des jugements de prix des consommateurs et proposer des contextes et des stratégies conduisant à des évaluations de prix plus précis. / In my dissertation I look at mental representations and cognitive processes that underlie mental arithmetic in the marketplace. This research contributes to behavioral pricing literature by outlining novel factors that influence consumers’ price difference judgments. Particularly, I uncover factors that make consumers more or less likely to fall prey to the left-digit anchoring bias (Essay 1) and factors that determine their tendency to rely on relative thinking in price difference evaluations (Essay 3). Further, this research provides new insights to the mental budgeting literature by identifying mental computation strategies that lead to more accurate basket price estimates (Essay 2). Overall, I expect my research to contribute to our understanding of consumers’ price judgments and suggest contexts and strategies leading to more accurate price evaluations.

Yes / The issues of channel conflict and channel power have received widespread research attention, including Geylani et al.’s (2007) work on channel relations in an asymmetric retail setting. Specifically, these authors suggest that a manufacturer can respond to a dominant retailer’s pricing pressure by raising the wholesale price for a weak retailer over that for the dominant retailer while transferring demand to the weak retailer channel via cooperative advertising. But, is online expansion another kind of strategic manufacturer’s optimal response to a dominant retailer? In this paper, we extend this work by adding a direct online selling channel to illustrate the impact of the manufacturer’s internet entry on firms’ demands, profits, and pricing strategies and on consumer welfare. Our analysis thus includes a condition in which the manufacturer can add an online channel. If such an online channel is opened, the channel-supported network externality will always benefit the manufacturer but hurt the retailers. Consumers, however, will only benefit from the network externality when a dominant retailer is present and will be hurt when both retailers are symmetric. / National Natural Science Foundation of China, Chongqing’s Natural Science Foundation, British Academy

O objeto da tese de doutorado é a análise da relação entre a defesa da concorrência e a proteção do consumidor, duas políticas públicas que proporcionam benefícios mútuos e devem ser executadas de modo harmônico, havendo substrato normativo e teórico para incluir a preocupação com o bem-estar do consumidor como um dos objetivos da política de defesa da concorrência. No Brasil tal harmonização é uma imposição constitucional, já que a livre concorrência, a repressão ao abuso do poder econômico e a defesa do consumidor são princípios conformadores da ordem econômica. É defendida a utilização de um conceito unificado de consumidor, sendo adotada a teoria finalista, que o define como o destinatário final econômico do bem ou serviço. As duas políticas utilizam diferentes instrumentos e perspectivas na tutela do bem-estar do consumidor, o que fica claro na proteção do direito de escolha. O Código de Defesa do Consumidor oferece a isonomia como remédio para compensar a vulnerabilidade, estabelecendo regras destinadas à uma escolha consciente, sobretudo o direito à informação adequada e veraz. Já as normas de defesa da concorrência resguardam a liberdade preocupando-se em preservar a possibilidade de escolha entre mais de um fornecedor de produtos ou serviços. O exemplo mais contundente dá-se no controle de estruturas: a atuação das autoridades responsáveis pela análise dos atos de concentração é vinculada à preservação do excedente do consumidor e das condições imprescindíveis ao exercício do direito de escolha, sendo vedada a aprovação de fusões que prejudiquem o bemestar do consumidor. No âmbito repressivo a harmonização das duas políticas é intensificada com a colaboração entre as autoridades de defesa da concorrência e de proteção do consumidor para a fiscalização de condutas que configurem, ao mesmo tempo, infrações contra a ordem econômica e práticas abusivas, cuja dupla capitulação não acarreta bis in idem, pois são distintas as esferas jurídicas tuteladas, havendo assim diversidade de fundamentos. É salientada a importância das ações coletivas para reparação de danos causados aos consumidores por infrações contra a ordem econômica e defendida a adoção dos danos multiplicados e a manutenção da destinação dos valores arrecadados por multas a infrações contra a ordem econômica ao Fundo Federal de Direitos Difusos. / The thesis analyzes the relationship between the competition defense and the consumer protection, both public policies that offer mutual benefits and must be carried out in a harmonic way. So, there is a normative and theoretical substratum concerning the consumer welfare as one of the objectives of the antitrust policy. In Brazil such harmonization is imposed by the Constitution, since the free competition, the repression of the abuse of the economic power and the consumer protection are principles that pertain to the constitutional economic order. In this paper consumer is regarded as a unified concept, i.e., the economic final user of goods or services. Both policies use different instruments and perspectives for the protection of the consumer welfare, what is clear in the enforcement of the right of choice. The Consumer Defense Code refers to the isonomy as a remedy to make up for the vulnerability, establishing rules for a conscious choice, especially the right to the proper, true and accurate information. The antitrust rules are concerned with the freedom of choice and the possibilities of option from more than one supplier of products or services. The most outstanding example is related to the merger control: the antitrust authorities are required to guarantee a consumer surplus and the necessary conditions to exercise the right of choice, being totally banned the approval of mergers that may be harmful to the consumer welfare. The harmonization of both policies in the repression scope is intensified with the cooperation between antitrust and consumer protection authorities regarding to the law enforcement against practices that may represent infractions of the competition and of the consumer protection rules, as well. The thesis emphasizes the importance of class actions to repair consumer damages caused by antitrust law violations and defends the adoption of the multiplied damages and the maintenance of the allocation to the Diffuse Rights Federal Fund of amounts raised by fines collected by the Antitrust Authorities.

O objeto da tese de doutorado é a análise da relação entre a defesa da concorrência e a proteção do consumidor, duas políticas públicas que proporcionam benefícios mútuos e devem ser executadas de modo harmônico, havendo substrato normativo e teórico para incluir a preocupação com o bem-estar do consumidor como um dos objetivos da política de defesa da concorrência. No Brasil tal harmonização é uma imposição constitucional, já que a livre concorrência, a repressão ao abuso do poder econômico e a defesa do consumidor são princípios conformadores da ordem econômica. É defendida a utilização de um conceito unificado de consumidor, sendo adotada a teoria finalista, que o define como o destinatário final econômico do bem ou serviço. As duas políticas utilizam diferentes instrumentos e perspectivas na tutela do bem-estar do consumidor, o que fica claro na proteção do direito de escolha. O Código de Defesa do Consumidor oferece a isonomia como remédio para compensar a vulnerabilidade, estabelecendo regras destinadas à uma escolha consciente, sobretudo o direito à informação adequada e veraz. Já as normas de defesa da concorrência resguardam a liberdade preocupando-se em preservar a possibilidade de escolha entre mais de um fornecedor de produtos ou serviços. O exemplo mais contundente dá-se no controle de estruturas: a atuação das autoridades responsáveis pela análise dos atos de concentração é vinculada à preservação do excedente do consumidor e das condições imprescindíveis ao exercício do direito de escolha, sendo vedada a aprovação de fusões que prejudiquem o bemestar do consumidor. No âmbito repressivo a harmonização das duas políticas é intensificada com a colaboração entre as autoridades de defesa da concorrência e de proteção do consumidor para a fiscalização de condutas que configurem, ao mesmo tempo, infrações contra a ordem econômica e práticas abusivas, cuja dupla capitulação não acarreta bis in idem, pois são distintas as esferas jurídicas tuteladas, havendo assim diversidade de fundamentos. É salientada a importância das ações coletivas para reparação de danos causados aos consumidores por infrações contra a ordem econômica e defendida a adoção dos danos multiplicados e a manutenção da destinação dos valores arrecadados por multas a infrações contra a ordem econômica ao Fundo Federal de Direitos Difusos. / The thesis analyzes the relationship between the competition defense and the consumer protection, both public policies that offer mutual benefits and must be carried out in a harmonic way. So, there is a normative and theoretical substratum concerning the consumer welfare as one of the objectives of the antitrust policy. In Brazil such harmonization is imposed by the Constitution, since the free competition, the repression of the abuse of the economic power and the consumer protection are principles that pertain to the constitutional economic order. In this paper consumer is regarded as a unified concept, i.e., the economic final user of goods or services. Both policies use different instruments and perspectives for the protection of the consumer welfare, what is clear in the enforcement of the right of choice. The Consumer Defense Code refers to the isonomy as a remedy to make up for the vulnerability, establishing rules for a conscious choice, especially the right to the proper, true and accurate information. The antitrust rules are concerned with the freedom of choice and the possibilities of option from more than one supplier of products or services. The most outstanding example is related to the merger control: the antitrust authorities are required to guarantee a consumer surplus and the necessary conditions to exercise the right of choice, being totally banned the approval of mergers that may be harmful to the consumer welfare. The harmonization of both policies in the repression scope is intensified with the cooperation between antitrust and consumer protection authorities regarding to the law enforcement against practices that may represent infractions of the competition and of the consumer protection rules, as well. The thesis emphasizes the importance of class actions to repair consumer damages caused by antitrust law violations and defends the adoption of the multiplied damages and the maintenance of the allocation to the Diffuse Rights Federal Fund of amounts raised by fines collected by the Antitrust Authorities.

反壟斷法(我國為公平交易法)上的效率抗辯，是指經營者通過證明結合的效率效果足以抵消或超過反競爭效果而取得反壟斷法豁免。“減損競爭”和“促進效率”這兩大因素的權衡是企業結合反壟斷控制的核心內容。 第一章為引言部分，提出本文的研究動機，並對研究方法、研究限制及論文大綱進行簡要介紹。在第二章介紹效率抗辯定義，及反壟斷法視野下普遍被接受的主要效率類型。第三章對效率抗辯制度在歐美國家的發展作了回顧。第四章則是利用經濟分析方法，計算反競爭效果，再比較分析實質性減少競爭標準和嚴重妨礙有效競爭標準之差異。第五章分三部份，第5.1章提及普遍被採納的效率抗辯模式，主要係一體分析模式、抵消分析模式和混合分析模式三種。並建議基於我國國情和《公平交易法》的相關規定，我國宜採用混合分析模式。第5. 2章就效率抗辯制度的適用標準而言，主要有價格標準、消費者剩餘標準、總剩餘標準和權重平衡標準。第5. 3章建議確立效率抗辯制度的證明標準、證明方法。尤其，就效率抗辯制度的適用條件而言，主要有效率為集中所特有、效率的及時性、效率的可證實性、在壟斷或接近壟斷的集中案件不應適用等要件。第六章建議我國明確建立安全港標準，凡屬於安全港範圍的結合不再作進一步審查。第七章綜合上述的結論，試著對我國效率抗辯制度建立提供建議 。 關鍵字：效率抗辯、事業結合、實質性減少競爭標準、嚴重妨礙有效競爭標準、抵消分析、一體分析、混合分析、價格標準、消費者福利標準、總剩餘標準、權重平衡標準 / The efficiency plea on the antitrust law refers that the intensified efficiency effect proved by the operator is sufficient to set off or stronger than the anti-competition effect so as to be exempted by the antitrust law. Competition impairment and efficiency promotion are two factors need to be traded off during the anti-monopoly control on concentration for business operators. Chapter One presents the motive , approach, framework, scope and limitations of the paper. Chapter Two introduces the definition of efficiency and the main types of efficiency which includes production efficiency, allocative efficiency, dynamic efficiency and other efficiencies. Chapter Three provides a brief history of efficiency plea practices in Europe and the United States . Chapter 4 tries to compare the Substantial Lessening of Competition test (SLC) with Significantly Impedes Effective Competition test (SIEC ) standards and try to prove the SIEC is suitable for our country. Chapter 4 also attempts to analyze anti-competitive effects of mergers by using economic analysis methods. Chapter Five is divided into three sections. Section one analyzes the main types of efficiency defense system models, including the integrated analysis model, offset analysis model and mixed analysis model. Considering the actual situation in our country and in accordance with regulations by the Antitrust Law of Taiwan, a mixed analysis mode is suggested for application. Section two focuses on the welfare standards of price standard, consumer welfare standard, the total surplus standard and the balancing weights standard. Section three recommends that standard of proof and method of proof and types of application conditions shall be established. Especially, the main types of application conditions are efficiency specific to concentration, the timeliness of the efficiency, the verifiability of the efficiency and whether the efficiency defense system is applied in the situation of near monopoly. Chapter Six defines the relevant market and suggest Critical loss analysis should be introduced for the relevant market definition. Chapter Six also suggests to adopt the " strong safe harbor" standard which means that once undertakings belong to the safe harbor range，they will no longer be subject to further review. The final chapter tries to offer some suggestions on the establishment of efficiency defense in Taiwan . Key words: efficiency plea, concentration of undertakings, the Substantial Lessening of integrated analysis model, offset analysis model, mixed analysis model, price standard, consumer welfare standard, the total surplus standard, the balancing weights standard

Europe is facing a climate and environmental crisis. To respond to this, the European Commission has launched several programmes, which aim to increase sustainability and environmental protection. This aim has been condensed into the policy document that is the European Green Deal. The European Green Deal sets out the aim of making the Union’s economy climate neutral, while improving environmental protection and protecting biodiversity. To this end, several different sectors of the economy need to be overhauled.  In EU Law, a key policy area is to protect free competition. Article 101 TFEU sets out that agreements between undertakings which have as their object or effect the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition are prohibited. Similarly, Article 102 TFEU prohibits abuse by an undertaking of a dominant position.  This thesis explores what happens when competition law thus intersects with the environmental policy of the Union. The thesis identifies two main situations  of interaction. Undertakings can invoke environmental protection to justify a restriction of competition. The Union may also rely on its antitrust provisions to enforce sustainability by holding unsustainable practices as restrictive agreements or abuses of dominant behaviour, respectively, and thus prohibited by the antitrust provisions.  Generally, the thesis concludes that there is not enough information on how the Commission and the CJEU will approach arguments relating to sustainability in its antitrust assessment. The Commission’s consumer welfare standard appears to limit environmental integration to points where a certain factor results affects the environment or sustainability on the one hand, and consumer welfare on the other. The lack of information, moreover, is in itself an issue as undertakings may abstain from environmental action if they believe they will come under scrutiny due to violations of the antitrust provisions. Therefore, a key conclusion in the thesis is that the Commission and the CJEU should set out clear guidelines for environmental action by undertakings, in relation to the antitrust provisions. Similarly, the Commission appears to be cautious to use antitrust as a tool against unsustainable practices. The Commission has, however, recently decided to open an investigation into agreements which limit sustainability, which shows that the picture may be changing.

Competition and data protection law are two powerful regimes simultaneously shaping the use of digital information, which has given rise to new interactions between these areas of law. While most views on this intersection emphasize that competition and data protection law must work together, nascent developments indicate that these legal regimes may sometimes conflict.  In the first place, firms faced with antitrust allegations are to an increasing extent invoking the need to protect the privacy of their users to justify their impugned conduct. Here, the conduct could either be prohibited by competition law despite of data protection or justified under competition law because of data protection. In the EU, no such justification attempt has reached court-stage, and it remains unclear how an enforcer ought to deal with such a claim. In the second place, competition law can mandate a firm to provide access to commercially valuable personal data to its rivals under a competition law remedy. Where that is the case, the question arising in this connection is whether an enforcer can and should design the remedy in a way that aligns with data protection law. If so, the issue remains of how that ought to be done. The task of the thesis has been to explore these issues, legally, economically, and coherently.  The thesis has rendered four main conclusions. First, data protection has a justified role in EU competition law in two ways. On the one hand, enhanced data protection can increase the quality of a service and may thus be factored in the competitive analysis as a dimension of quality. On the other, data protection as a human right must be guaranteed in the application of competition law. Second, these perspectives can be squared with the criteria for justifying competition breaches, in that data protection can be invoked to exculpate a firm from antitrust allegations. Third, in that context, the human rights dimension of data protection may entail that the enforcer must consider data protection even if it is not invoked. However, allowing data protection interests to override competition law in this manner is relatively inefficient as it may lead to less innovation, higher costs, and lower revenues. Fourth, the profound importance of data protection in the EU necessarily means that enforcers should accommodate data protection interests in designing competition law remedies which mandate access to personal data. This may be done in several ways, including requirements to anonymize data before providing access, or to oblige the firm to be compliant with data protection law in the process of providing access. The analysis largely confirms that anonymization is the preferable option.

In South Africa compliance with competition law has become a major concern for firms that achieve and maintain certain levels of success and growth in the market, as their actions are often a source of complaints and litigation by rivals and competition authorities. With substantial financial penalties often levied against them for a variety of conduct deemed to constitute an abuse of their market position, dominant firms must constantly be aware of the likely impact of their business strategies and actions on both rivals and consumers. What were once thought to be normal and economically sound business practices and decisions, such as cutting prices to attract customers, have now acquired new meanings, with devastating consequences for dominant firms. So, are dominant firms under attack from competition law? In this study I aim to determine this. I track the historical development of competition law in three jurisdictions: South Africa, America, and the EU, with the aim of identifying traces, if any, of hostility towards dominant firms in the origins of competition law. I further investigate whether the formulation and enforcement of certain aspects of existing abuse of dominance provisions manifest as hostility towards dominant firms. While acknowledging the important role that competition law enforcement plays in promoting competition and enhancing consumer welfare, I conclude that significant unjustified economic and legal prejudice is suffered by dominant firms as a result of the way in which certain abuse of dominance provisions have been formulated and applied. I also offer appropriate recommendations. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.