abstract: Perpetual Pavements, if properly designed and rehabilitated, it can last longer than 50 years without major structural rehabilitation. Fatigue endurance limit is a key parameter for designing perpetual pavements to mitigate bottom-up fatigue cracking. The endurance limit has not been implemented in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide software, currently known as DARWin-ME. This study was conducted as part of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 9-44A to develop a framework and mathematical methodology to determine the fatigue endurance limit using the uniaxial fatigue test. In this procedure, the endurance limit is defined as the allowable tensile strains at which a balance takes place between the fatigue damage during loading, and the healing during the rest periods between loading pulses. The viscoelastic continuum damage model was used to isolate time dependent damage and healing in hot mix asphalt from that due to fatigue. This study also included the development of a uniaxial fatigue test method and the associated data acquisition computer programs to conduct the test with and without rest period. Five factors that affect the fatigue and healing behavior of asphalt mixtures were evaluated: asphalt content, air voids, temperature, rest period and tensile strain. Based on the test results, two Pseudo Stiffness Ratio (PSR) regression models were developed. In the first model, the PSR was a function of the five factors and the number of loading cycles. In the second model, air voids, asphalt content, and temperature were replaced by the initial stiffness of the mix. In both models, the endurance limit was defined when PSR is equal to 1.0 (net damage is equal to zero). The results of the first model were compared to the results of a stiffness ratio model developed based on a parallel study using beam fatigue test (part of the same NCHRP 9-44A). The endurance limit values determined from uniaxial and beam fatigue tests showed very good correlation. A methodology was described on how to incorporate the second PSR model into fatigue analysis and damage using the DARWin-ME software. This would provide an effective and efficient methodology to design perpetual flexible pavements. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Civil and Environmental Engineering 2012

abstract: With the maturity of advanced composites as feasible structural materials for various applications there is a critical need to solve the challenge of designing these material systems for optimal performance. However, determining superior design methods requires a deep understanding of the material-structure properties at various length scales. Due to the length-scale dependent behavior of advanced composites, multiscale modeling techniques may be used to describe the dominant mechanisms of damage and failure in these material systems. With polymer matrix fiber composites and nanocomposites it becomes essential to include even the atomic length scale, where the resin-hardener-nanofiller molecules interact, in the multiscale modeling framework. Additionally, sources of variability are also critical to be included in these models due to the important role of uncertainty in advance composite behavior. Such a methodology should be able to describe length scale dependent mechanisms in a computationally efficient manner for the analysis of practical composite structures. In the research presented in this dissertation, a comprehensive nano to macro multiscale framework is developed for the mechanical and multifunctional analysis of advanced composite materials and structures. An atomistically informed statistical multiscale model is developed for linear problems, to estimate and scale elastic properties of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites (CFRPs) and carbon nanotube (CNT) enhanced CFRPs using information from molecular dynamics simulation of the resin-hardener-nanofiller nanoscale system. For modeling inelastic processes, an atomistically informed coupled damage-plasticity model is developed using the framework of continuum damage mechanics, where fundamental nanoscale covalent bond disassociation information is scaled up as a continuum scale damage identifying parameter. This damage model is coupled with a nanocomposite microstructure generation algorithm to study the sub-microscale damage mechanisms in CNT/CFRP microstructures. It is further integrated in a generalized method of cells (GMC) micromechanics model to create a low-fidelity computationally efficient nonlinear multiscale method with imperfect interfaces between the fiber and matrix, where the interface behavior is adopted from nanoscale MD simulations. This algorithm is used to understand damage mechanisms in adhesively bonded composite joints as a case study for the comprehensive nano to macroscale structural analysis of practical composites structures. At each length scale sources of variability are identified, characterized, and included in the multiscale modeling framework. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Aerospace Engineering 2018

Orientador: Osvaldo Luís Manzoli / Banca: Plinio Glauber Carvalho dos Prazeres / Banca: Edson Antonio Capello Souza / Resumo: Atualmente, na odontologia, após a perda de dentes por razões diversas, estes vêm sendo substituídos por implantes dentários. A importância e modelos computacionais biomecânicos é cada vez mais frequente, posto que essas ferramentas permitem simular o comportamento desses dispositivos que tentam restaurar as funções dos dentes perdidos. Como os aspectos biomecânicos de implantes são diferentes daqueles de um dente natural, circundando por um ligamento periodontal, a transferência da carga ao implante, e deste ao osso circundante, poide gerar esforços que, além de provocar falhas nas reabilitações, podem até ultrapassar o limite fisiológico e causar perda da osseointegração. Na análise desses sistemas de prótese, é essencial representar adequadamente as influências entre os diferentes componentes implante/coroa, que são comumente unidos através de parafusos. Falhas destas uniões podem prejudicar o correto funcionamento da prótese, ou até mesmo, produzir esforços não previstos, responsáveis por danos severos na prótese ou no osso. Assim, faz-se necessário descrever adequadamente o comportamento das interfaces entre os componentes dos sistemas protéticos. No presente trabalho, são utilizados elementos finitos sólidos tetraédricos com elevada razão de aspecto para representar a superfície de interface entre os componentes em contato implante/parafuso/coroa. Um modelo constitutivo de dano é empregado para reproduzir o comportamento desses elementos de interface. O modelo é desenvolvido para representar o comportamento diferenciado em tração e compressão na superfície de contato, permitir a separação dos componentes sem oferecer, praticamente, resistência, contudo, ao mesmo tempo, impedir movimentos de interpenetração no caso de solicitações compressivas no... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Currently, in dentistry, after loss of teeth for various reasons, they have been replaced by dental implants. The importance of biomechanical computer models is increasingly, since they tools allows for the simulation of the behavior of thes devices that try to restore the cunctions of missing teeth. As the biomechanical aspects of implants are different from those of natural tooth, surrounded by a periodontal ligament, the load transferred to the implant and the surrounding bone can generate stresses that, in addition to cause failures in rehabilitations, can even exceed the physiological limit and cause loss of osseointegration. In the analysis of these phosthetic systems, it is essential to adequately represent the interaction between different components that are commonly joined together by using screws. Possible joint failures can adversely affect the correct functioning of unions, or even produce stresses responsible for severe damage in prosthesis or bone. Thus, it is necessary to adequately describe the behavior of interfaces between components prosthetic systems. In this work, tetrahedral solid finite elements with high aspect ratio are used to represent the contact interface between components (implant/screw/Crown). A constitute damage model is employed to reproduce the behavior of these interface elements. The model is designed to represent the differentiated behavior in tension and compression on the contact surface, allowing the separation of the components without offering resistance, however, preventing movement of interpenetration in the case of compression on the contact. So it is expected that this... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

A Mecânica do Dano Contínuo é atualmente uma poderosa ferramenta para se modelar o comportamento não-linear de vários materiais decorrente da evolução de um processo de microfissuração. A perda de rigidez causada pelo processo físico tem sido considerada em modelos constitutivos através de variáveis de dano escalar, vetorial ou tensorial. Quando o carregamento é proporcionalmente crescente as deformações residuais podem ser ignoradas e relações constitutivas simples podem ser obtidas, onde os efeitos do dano aparecem por uma penalização direta das propriedades elásticas. Por outro lado, efeitos de dano podem ser acoplados com deformações residuais levando a relações constitutivas mais gerais. Esse trabalho está relacionado a esses tipos de modelos assumindo que o meio ideal apresenta um comportamento elástico linear com danificação ou elastoplástico com danificação. Um dos principais aspectos discutido relaciona-se à formulação variacional, a qual está baseada em conceitos de Análise Convexa e Não-Convexa. Explorando o fato que a evolução do dano tem correspondência com a idealização de regime de encruamento negativo, a teoria de localização de deformação é abordada e um estudo da condição necessária de singularidade ou perda da condição de elipticidade é realizado. Na sequência, uma proposta preliminar para uma análise de pós-singularidade, baseada na Teoria de Bifurcação, é feita no sentido de caracterizar pontos limite ou pontos de bifurcação de solução, em sistemas conservativos. / Continuum Damage Mechanics is nowadays a powerful tool to model the non-linear behaviour of several materials due to evolution of a microcracking process. The lost of rigidity caused by such physical process has been accounted in the constitutive models through a scalar, vectorial or tensorial damage variables. When proportional loading is considered the residuals strains can be ignored and simple constitutive relations can be obtained in which damage effects appear by direct penalization of the elastic properties. On the other hand, damage effects can be coupled with residual strains leading to more general constitutive relations. This work is related to such kind of models assuming that the ideal medium presents a linear elastic-damage or an elastoplastic-damage behaviour. One of the main topics discussed is related to the variational formulation which is based on Convex and Non-Convex Analysis concepts. Exploring the fact that damage evolution has correspondence with a softening idealised regime, the strain localization theory is treated and a study of a necessary condition for singularity or ellipticity tose condition is developed. In the sequence, a introductory poscritical analysis is proposed, based in the bifurcation theory and aiming to detect if the singularity corresponds to a limit or a bifurcation point solution, in conservative systems.

Du fait de leurs bonnes propriétés physiques et thermiques et de leur faible coût, les aciers ferrito-martensitiques à 9%Cr sont envisagés comme matériaux de circuits et comme tubes des échangeurs et des générateurs de vapeur pour le prototype de Réacteur Rapide au sodium (RNR-Na) ASTRID. Plusieurs mécanismes existent dans la littérature pour expliquer la formation de la couche d’oxyde duplexe spinelle Fe-Cr/magnétite formée lors de l’oxydation des aciers Fe-9Cr dans différents environnements. Par ailleurs, un endommagement partiel ou total de la couche d’oxyde apparait systématiquement en environnement eau ou vapeur d’eau. Aussi, afin d’apporter des éléments pour une évaluation robuste de ces alliages sur de longues durées, ce travail a eu pour but d’une part d’étudier les cinétiques d’oxydation et d’autre part de comprendre l’ensemble des mécanismes conduisant à l’écaillage de la couche d’oxyde. La première partie de l’étude a consisté à mener des essais d’oxydation à 550°C en milieu vapeur d’eau pure et sous Ar/D2O/H2, avec différentes teneurs en hydrogène et vapeur d’eau. Une simulation, basée sur une résolution analytique, a permis de montrer que le modèle de l’espace disponible proposé dans la littérature pour la croissance de la couche duplexe permet de représenter quantitativement les résultats expérimentaux (cinétique, stœchiométrie, proportion des phases). Le deuxième volet de cette étude a été consacré à l’étude de l’endommagement de la couche d’oxyde lors de sa croissance en milieu vapeur d’eau pure. La rupture de la couche d’oxyde par cloquage puis écaillage a systématiquement lieu au sein de la couche de magnétite. Les pores observés au sein de cette couche apparaissent être des sites d’initiation du phénomène de décohésion. Un modèle en cohérence avec le modèle cinétique a été proposé pour anticiper le lieu de formation des pores. Il repose sur le calcul du flux de fer au sein de la couche d’oxyde en croissance. Il permet d’expliquer quantitativement le lieu de formation des pores par l’accumulation de lacunes de fer au sein de la couche de magnétite dans une zone de plus fort gradient de potentiel chimique. Pour évaluer les contraintes présentes au sein de la couche d’oxyde et impliquées dans l’endommagement de celle-ci, des essais de déflexion d’une lame mince asymétrique ont été réalisés sous différents environnements oxydants à 550°C. Les essais réalisés en milieu humide sous Ar/H2O/(H2) et sous CO2 ont mis en évidence la présence de contraintes de croissance en compression de l’ordre de -150 MPa au sein de la couche d’oxyde lors de l’isotherme. Par ailleurs, la présence d’hydrogène dans le milieu oxydant apparait favoriser la fragilisation de la couche d’oxyde. Une approche numérique a été développée pour simuler les essais de déflexion, en prenant en compte les phénomènes de relaxation par fluage et le caractère multi-strates de la couche d’oxyde. Les principales formes de relaxation des contraintes, viscoplasticité de la couche, signes d’endommagement macroscopique (fissurations), ont ainsi été quantifiées. / In the framework of the development of Generation IV reactors and specifically in the new Sodium Fast Reactor (SFR) project, Fe-9Cr ferritic-martensitic steels are candidates as structural materials for steam generators. Indeed, Fe-9Cr steels are already widely used in high temperature steam environments – like boilers and steam turbines- for their combination of creep strength and high thermal properties. Many studies have been focused on Fe-9Cr steels oxidation behavior between 550°C-700°C.Depending on the oxidizing environment, formation of a triplex (Fe-Cr spinel/magnetite/hematite) or duplex (Fe-Cr spinel/magnetite) oxide scales are reported.. Besides, for long time exposure in steam, the exfoliation of oxide scales can cause serious problems such as tube obstruction and steam turbine erosion. Consequently, this work has been dedicated to study, on the one hand the oxidation kinetics of T91 steel in water vapor environments, and on the other hand, the mechanisms leading to the spallation of the oxide scale. Oxidation tests have been carried out at 550°C in pure water vapor and in Ar/D2O/H2 environments with different hydrogen contents. Based on an analytical resolution, a quantitative modeling has shown that the “available space model” proposed in the literature for duplex oxide scale formation well reproduces both scales growth kinetics and spinel oxide stoichiometry. Then, oxidized samples have been precisely characterized and it turns out that buckling then spalling of the oxide scale is always located in the magnetite layer. Voids observed in the magnetite layer are major initiation sites of decohesion of the outer oxide scale. A mechanism of formation of these voids has been proposed, in accordance with the mechanism of duplex scale formation. The derived model based on the assumption that vacancies accumulate where the iron vacancies flux divergence is maximal gives a good estimation of the location of pores inside the magnetite layer. Then, in order to evaluate stresses involved in the spallation of the oxide scale, deflection tests have been performed in different oxidizing environments at 550°C. Tests carried out in Ar/H2O/(H2) and in CO2 have highlighted the presence of compressive growth strains (around -150 MPa) during isothermal oxidation. Moreover, hydrogen seems to promote the oxide scale embrittlement. A numerical approach has also been developed in order to simulate the deflection test experiment, taking into account different relaxation phenomenon and considering a triplex oxide scale. Hence, stress relaxation by oxide scale viscoplasticity and microfissuration have been quantified.

[pt] A Mecânica do Dano Contínuo é uma ferramenta promissora para a análise de vida residual em componentes de máquinas e de estruturas. Todavia, não é uma tarefa simples a de se obter uma descrição fisica realística, associada a uma descrição matemática correta, do acoplamento entre a deformação e o amolecimento causado pela degradação da microestrutura. No caso de barras metálicas, a deformação plástica cíclica causa um endurecimento junto com uma degradação na estrutura (dano de fadiga). Por outro lado, a degradação da estrutura induz o amolecimento observado na curva tensão de engenharia vs. deformação. Logo, torna-se importante a modelagem do acoplamento entre plasticidade e dano para que se possa prever de maneira adequada o tempo de vida (ciclos), de um componente estrutural. Muitas tentativas feitas para descrever este tipo de comportamento mostraram-se insatisfatórias. O problema matemático é, em geral, mal posto e uma aproximação numérica da solução é incorreta do ponto de vista fisico. Nestes casos, o fenômeno de localização da deformação é malha-dependente. No presente trabalho, propõe-se uma nova teoria de dano para materiais elasto-plásticos que supera este problema. A teoria tem uma forte base termodinâmica e leva em conta o fenômeno de amolecimento. Uma diferença básica em relação a outros modelos consiste no fato de que a variável escalar D, associada ao dano, é considerada não apenas uma variável de estado mas também uma variável cinemática independente, com abordagem semelhante à apresentada nas teorias de contínuo com microestrutura. As possibilidades de utilização da teoria apresentada são verificadas através da comparação de simulações numéricas com resultados experimentais, para solicitações cíclicas uniaxiais, em barras de almnínioestrutural e em barras de aço austenitico AISI 316 L. / [en] Continuum Damage Mechanics is a promising tool for the failure prediction of structural components. Nevertheless, it is not a simple task to do a mathematically correct and physically realistic description of the strain-softcning behavior due to the degradation of the microstructure. In the case of metallic bars, the cyclic plastic deformation induces a strain-hardening and also a degradation of the structure (fatigue damage). In the other hand, the degradation of the structure induces a softening behavior in the engineering stress-strain curve. Hence, it is very important to model the coupling between plasticity and damage in order to perform an adequate lifetime prevision. Many attempts to describe this type of behavior have been unsatisfatory. The mathematical problem is, in general, ill posed and a numerical approximation of the solution is incorrect from the physical point of view. In this cases the phenomenon of strain localization due to strain-soflzening is mesh dependent. In the present work a new Damage theory for elasto-plastic materials that overcome this problem is proposed. The theory has a strong thermodynarnic basis and take into account the softening behavior. One basic difference from the others models is that the scalar variable D related with damage is taken as an independent kinematic variable, similarly as in the theories of continua with microstructure. The effectiveness and usefulness of the theory is checked by comparing numerical simulations of cyclic uniaxial tests in Aluminiun bars and 316L stainless steel bars with experimental results.

This thesis studies the strain response of mastic asphalt to arbitrary tension, arbitrary compression, alternating tension/compression, loading, zigzag loading and sinusoidal loading. In order to model the strain response to different loading histories, the scissors model is employed. Matlab modules are developed that are able to predict strain response not only for creep loading but also for other types of non constant stress loading such as zigzag loading and sinusoidal loading. In addition, another phenomological model, i.e. the viscoelastoplastic continuum damage model, is summarized and discussed in detail with respect to its applicability for the available data set.

<p>Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is a common cause of failure in tribological machine components such as rolling-element bearings (REBs). Steels selected for RCF applications are subject to various material processes in order to produce martensitic microstructures. An effect of such material processing is the retention of the austenitic phase within the steel microstructure. Retained austenite (RA) transformation in martensitic steels subjected to RCF is a well-established phenomenon. In this investigation, a novel approach is developed to predict martensitic transformations of RA in steels subjected to RCF. A criteria for phase transformations is developed by comparing the required thermodynamic driving force for transformations to the energy dissipation in the microstructure. The method combines principles from phase transformations in solids with a damage mechanics framework to calculate energy availability for transformations. The modeling is then extended to incorporate material alterations as a result of RA transforming within the material. A continuum damage mechanics (CDM) FEM simulation is used to capture material deterioration, phase transformations, and the formation of internal stresses as a result of RCF. Crystal lattice orientation is included to modify energy requirements for RA transformation. Damage laws are modified to consider residual stresses and different components of the stress state as the drivers of energy dissipation. The resulting model is capable of capturing microstructural evolution during RCF.</p> <p>The development and stability of internal stresses caused by RA transformation in bearing steel material was experimentally investigated. Specimens of 8620 case carburized steel were subjected to torsional fatigue at specific stress levels for a prescribed number of cycles. X-ray diffraction techniques were used to measure residual stress and RA volume fraction as a function of depth in the material. A model is set forth to predict compressive residual stress in the material as a function of RA transformation and material relaxation. Modeling results are corroborated with experimental data. In addition, varying levels of retained austenite (RA) were achieved through varying undercooling severity in uniformly treated case carburized 8620 steel. Specimens were characterized via XRD and EBSD techniques to determine RA volume fraction and material characteristics prior to rolling contact fatigue (RCF). Higher RA volume fractions did not lead to improvement in RCF lives. XRD measurements after RCF testing indicated that little RA decomposition had occurred during RCF. The previously established RCF simulations were modified to investigate the effects of RA stability on RCF. The results obtained from the CDM FEM captured similar behavior observed in the experimental results. Utilizing the developed model, a parametric study was undertaken to examine the effects of RA quantity, RA stability, and applied pressure on RCF performance. The study demonstrates that the energy requirements to transform the RA phase is critical to RCF performance.</p>

<p dir="ltr">Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is one of the leading causes of failure in critical tribological components such as rolling element bearings (REBs), gears, cam and followers, etc. This is especially paramount for advanced aerospace applications where REB components need to operate for billions of RCF cycles before routine maintenance or inspection is performed. The rolling motion between the rolling elements and raceway produces RCF, wherein a complex, non-proportional, alternating contract stress is applied over a small material volume. Moreover, the highly localized stress occurs on the same length scale as microstructural features such as carbides, inclusions, grain size, hardness gradients from carburization, surface roughness, thereby amplifying their effect on fatigue performance. Therefore, the objective of this dissertation is to investigate critical microstructural modifications and their effects on RCF performance via experiments and computational modeling.</p><p dir="ltr">Initially, an investigation was undertaken to investigate surface roughness effects on RCF. The surface roughness of various REBs was measured through optical surface profilometry and used to construct rough surface pressure distributions, which were then used in a continuum damage mechanics (CDM) finite element (FE) framework. The results demonstrated that life is reduced as lambda ratio decreases. It was also observed that a 2-parameter Weibull cumulative distribution function can describe the relationship between the near surface orthogonal shear stress concentration and ratio of surface failures.</p><p dir="ltr">Next, the enhancement to RCF life from grain size refinement of through hardened bearing steels was studied. To capture the effects of grain refinement, torsion stress-life data of various grain size were used in the RCF model. A predictive life equation for different grain sizes was constructed based on the exponential trend observed between grain size and life from the simulation data. The life equation was then used to calculate the quotient of RCF at two different grain sizes. This quotient was defined as the life improvement ratio and it was observed that this investigation’s ratios compared well with existing life improvement ratios from RCF experiments.</p><p dir="ltr">Hardness gradient is a common microstructural modification to improve RCF life of tribo-components. Variation of hardness gradients is prevalent in case hardened (i.e. case carburized) bearing materials. Therefore, the CDM-FE RCF model was modified to investigate the effects of various hardness gradient types and depths on fatigue life improvement. The simulation results enabled the identification of potentially optimal gradients aimed to mitigate manufacturing challenges and provided the foundation for the construction of a general fatigue life equation.</p><p dir="ltr">A fundamental study to understand the impact various common RCF failure criteria have on RCF life estimation was then conducted using computational modeling. To capture the variation of a material’s resistance to fatigue, the critical CDM damage parameters were assumed to follow a probabilistic distribution instead of a singular value. The CDM-FE model was modified to consider the shear reversal, the octahedral shear stress, the maximum shear stress, the Fatemi-Socie criteria, and the Dang Van multi-axial fatigue parameter as failure criteria. Simulation life results revealed that the CDM-FE model with shear reversal and Fatemi-Socie criteria best match empirical predictions from well-established RCF life theory. Notably, the Fatemi-Socie exhibited the best agreement over all operating conditions.</p><p dir="ltr">The next investigation focused on the cleanliness of aerospace-quality bearing steels. Torsion fatigue experiments established the stress-life (S-N) relation for three common aerospace quality bearing steels. The S-N data was later used to calibrate the RCF model’s damage equation, which considered the Fatemi-Socie criteria following conclusions from a previous investigation. Simulation results were observed to corroborate well with RCF experiments that were conducted for all three materials, while noting the simulations offered a significant time saving. As a result, a subsequent investigation focused on establishing the stress-life relationship for one of the aerospace quality bearing steels through a combined experimental and analytical approach. Good corroboration was observed between simulations and experiments at three contact pressures. This finding is particularly significant as it strengthens the reliability of computational RCF model as an efficient means to assess the RCF performance of bearing materials.</p><p dir="ltr">Furthermore, the detailed investigation on RCF performance of each critical microstructural modifications and their respective effect greatly improves the state-of-the-art. The findings emanating from the various investigations offer informed fatigue design recommendations that aid in the selection of rolling element bearings for critical tribological and aerospace applications.</p>

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