Energy poverty is defined as the lack of access of households in developing countries to modern energy sources, and their consequent reliance on solid biomass fuels for cooking. So-called “Improved stoves” have been promoted by various public and private actors since the 1970s to tackle various environmental and health challenges associated with biomass use. Impact studies of such projects are usually based on on-site surveys about the stoves’ use, and thus are extremely site-specific, and difficultly generalizable. This thesis project aims to introduce a novel approach to impact assessment of improved cooking stoves on both local energy needs and deforestation in the area. This approach will base most of its figures and assumptions on calculated energy needs rather than survey reports. This will result in a highly flexible energy model, which can be used and adapted to help decision and policy makers in their function. The area of Nyeri County, Kenya, where the author completed a one-month field study, is used throughout the thesis as a case study in order to validate the model.

Household air pollution annually kills around 14 300 people in Kenya, due to the hazardous smoke of incomplete combustion coming from inefficient stoves. Exposure to this smokeleads to lethal health issues for the women and children staying in these kitchens, but the smoke also leads to a contribution to global warming. Which makes it important finding are placement for the inefficient traditional cooking methods. This report presents results from a field work situated in Kibugu, Embu in central Kenya. It includes testing of three stoves, the traditional Three stone open fire and two biochar producing stoves, the previously tested stove Gastov made by KIRDI and the MiG|BioCooker made by Make It Green Solutions AB. The data was collected using participatory cooking tests where five households got to cook the traditional meal Ugali with Sukuma wiki and Githeri (maize and beans). Firewood consumption, emissions of CO and PM, user experience and char production were measured during the test, to be able to compare the stoves. The results indicate that the MiG|BioCooker can decrease the emissions of PM2.5 and CO in the kitchens and produce biochar. But on the other hand, cooking with three stone open fire more effective in terms of cooking time. Even though the MiG|BioCooker could improve the conditions of the household’s indoor air, the users seems to prioritize the practical characteristics of the three stone open fire that gives them more time and making it easier to cook. But with some modifications and by further use of the MiG|BioCooker, it might be apossible substitute to the three stone open fire in the future.

In 2011, Energy saving (mud) stoves were introduced in villages around the Kachung Forestplantation in rural Uganda as part of an effort to support local sustainable development. Initial fieldwork showedthat the stoves had not been adopted as much as the apparent benefits would suggest. This has been a commonissue with improved cooking stove projects around the world. In order to find out why the stoves are notadopted, 67 women in charge of the cooking were interviewed additionally participant observations of cooking,other daily work routines and building stoves conducted, as well as interviews with other relevant stakeholders.Results show that women struggle to find enough firewood and are bothered by the smoke produced whencooking, which makes them generally very interested in improved mud stoves. Indeed many women hadadopted a local version of the mud stove in order to ease the burden of firewood collection. The reason for notadopting a mud stove in general can be mainly attributed to work burden in constructing it. As for the moresophisticated energy saving mud stoves introduced, additional factors were that the implementation strategyshows weaknesses in how the knowledge on how to build the stove is supposed to spread. Further, the stoveintroduced is rather complex in the way it is supposed to be built, which makes it difficult to spread theknowledge of how to build it. The implementation strategy needs to be revised under consideration of the localcircumstances in order to achieve a higher adoption rate.

This thesis is the result of nine weeks fieldwork in Babati and Bukoba districts in Northern Tanzania during spring 2012. The purpose of this thesis is to study why development projects on fuel-efficient stoves have had a limited adoption in these two regions and what obstacles and opportunities there are for further spread of fuel-efficient cooking stoves. Semi-structured interviews were the main method used for collecting the empirical data, which was then analysed from a socio-economic perspective with help from the framework of Sustainable Rural Livelihoods. The Results showed that people’s perceptions of fuel-efficient stoves are positive but that projects face many obstacles connected to socio-economic conditions. Knowledge on how to get stoves and access to financial capital is main obstacles for further spreading. Social networks and organisations are channels for information, but to spread outside these networks will need complementing strategies from organisations promoting fuel-efficient stoves. Important are also finding ways of making the financial aspect of adopting stoves less, like using materials with lower costs, using stove-models with low costs and training people in building stoves so re-investments are unnecessary and dependency of funding from organisations less. Gender is a factor affecting the adoption of fuel-efficient stoves, regarding access to assets and generated benefits. There is therefore an importance of involving gender throughout the different stages of the projects.

Thesis (MPhil (Sustainable Development and Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis addresses the topic of carbon finance in the context of reforestation and avoided deforestation. The research is based on the Nhambita Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) and Agro-forestry carbon offset project in North West Mozambique. The thesis raises important questions in terms of the relevance of carbon offset projects to human and biophysical realities in Africa. The research was conducted through the lens of ethnographic development and explores how carbon offset projects are received by recipient communities. What issues do such projects attempt to address? Are the targeted issues the „real‟ issues, as they are perceived by local populations in developing countries? Who do such projects benefit and who do they benefit the most? The thesis comprises two academic papers. The first paper is a synthesis article presenting a review of key issues with regards to the roll-out of improved cooking stoves (ICS) in the context of carbon offset projects, combined with a pre-feasibility study on the introduction of ICS in the Nhambita village. It shows how biomass will continue to play a dominant role in addressing Southern African energy needs and how a large scale dissemination of ICS could play a seminal role in alleviating pressure on threatened ecosystems. The paper, however, recognizes that ICS programmes are not a panacea and discusses the pitfalls of paradigms underlying stove-provision programmes to date. Based on a review of the pertinent literature and on the field work conducted in Mozambique, conclusions are drawn that environmental and health considerations do not constitute a sufficient „pull‟ factor from the end user‟s perspective. It appears that best channels to engage with the targeted users are economic and social rationales. This debate is of particular relevance to climate change policy but it also offers insights in terms of the acceptance of such programmes by the target communities. The second paper is related to the first in that it discusses the opportunities and challenges associated with the developmental ambitions of carbon offset projects. By virtue of the market systems that regulate them, such carbon offset projects imply an innovative developmental praxis, whereby project recipients become the owners and the sellers of a tangible good in the form of carbon credits. This innovative dimension is, however, thwarted by the fact that such projects stir welfare expectations from project participants. Such livelihood improvement expectations become the fertile ground for difficulties reminiscent of the weakness of traditional aid. The intricacies underpinning this new mechanism that combines land use changes with environmental conservation and livelihood benefits are debated in the context of private entrepreneurship and global markets. The analysis is anchored in a socioanthropological interpretation of climate change science and lays the emphasis on the risks and constraints of such projects, from the perspective of the target communities. The paper concludes by discussing the policy implications of these findings. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis behandel die onderwerp van koolstoffinansies binne die konteks van herbebossing en vermyde ontbossing. Die navorsing is gebaseer op die Nhambita Veminderde Emissies van Ontbossing en Degradasie (REDD) en die agrobosbou koolstofkompensasieprojek in Noord-Wes Mosambiek Die tesis opper belangrike vrae ingevolge die relevansie van koolstofverminderingsprojekte vir die menslike en biofisiese realiteite van Afrika. Watter kwessies probeer sulke projekte aanspreek? Is die geteikende kwessies die „ware‟ kwessies, soos hulle gesien word deur plaaslike bevolkings in ontwikkelende lande? Wie trek voordeel uit sulke projekte en wie trek die meeste voordeel daaruit? Die tesis behels twee akademiese verhandelings. Die eerste verhandeling is „n sinteseartikel wat „n oorsig bied van sleutelkwessies ten opsigte van die uitrol van verbeterde kookstowe (VKS) binne die konteks van koolstofverminderingsprojekte, gekombineer met „n vooruitvoerbaarheidstudie oor die bekendstelling van VKS in die Nhambita-dorpie. Dit dui aan hoe biomassa sal voortgaan om „n dominante rol te vervul in die aanspreek van energiebehoeftes in Afrika en hoe die onderliggende paradigmas van vorige stoofvoorsieningsprogramme heroorweeg moet word om tot die debat by te dra. Hierdie benadering erken die belangrikheid van hierdie hernubare energiebron, terwyl dit die ekologiese implikasies van die swaar steun op biomassa besef, veral in Suider Afrika. Gebaseer op 'n oorsig van gepaste literatuur sowel as die veldwerk gedoen in Mosambiek, word die gevolgtrekking gemaak dat omgewings- en gesondheidsoorwegings nie genoeg stukrag verleen vanuit die eindgebruiker se perspektief nie. Die beste kanale om by die teikengebruikers betrokke te raak, is ekonomiese en sosiale rasionale. Hierdie debat is van besondere betekenis vir die klimaatsveranderingsbeleid maar word ook fyn bestudeer ten opsigte van die aanvaarding van sodanige programme deur die teikengemeenskappe. Die tweede verhandeling is verwant aan die eerste in die opsig dat dit die geleenthede en uitdagings bespreek wat verband hou met die ontwikkelingsbehoeftes van koolstofverminderingsprojekte. Uit hoofde van die markstelsel wat hulle reguleer, impliseer sulke koolstofverminderingsprojekte „n innoverende ontwikkelingspraktyk, waarvolgens projekontvangers die verkopers word van „n tasbare voordeel in die vorm van koolstofkrediete. Hierdie innoverende dimensie word gedwarsboom deur „n tradisionele benadering tot ontwikkeling wat ontstaan uit die welvaartverwagtings van projekdeelnemers. Sodanige bestaansverbeteringverwagtings word die teelaarde van probleme kenmerkend van die swakheid van tradisionele bystand. Die ingewikkeldhede van hierdie nuwe meganisme, wat landgebruikveranderings kombineer met omgewingsbewaring, asook die bestaansvoordele word gedebatteer binne die konteks van privaat entrepreneurskap en wêreldmarkte. Die ontleding is geanker in „n sosio-antropologiese interpretasie van klimaatsveranderingwetenskap en benadruk die risiko‟s en beperkings van sulke projekte, vanuit die perspektief van die teikengemeenskappe.

[ES] Resumen Casi la mitad de la población mundial no tiene acceso a energías como la electricidad o el gas y tienen que utilizar forzosamente biomasa para cocinar, principalmente leña y carbón. Lo que en países desarrollados parece un lujo, en otros muchos es una obligación, ya que no hay otra alternativa. Con un pequeño ahorro en el combustible que utilizan estas estufas de los países sin acceso a otro tipo de energía, el resultado global es extraordinario. En el caso de la República Democrática del Congo más del 80% de la población realiza sus actividades culinarias utilizando biomasa sólida (leña, carbón vegetal, etc.) Para cocinar en las zonas rurales y los extrarradios de las grandes ciudades se utiliza la tradicional estufa de tres piedras TCS-3P y en las zonas urbanas la tradicional estufa de carbón vegetal TCS-C. La principal desventaja de esta práctica es una combustión de baja eficiencia energética, con la consecuencia directa de un consumo excesivo de materias primas como carbón y leña y la correspondiente deforestación. Estos equipos de cocina tradicionales emiten muchos contaminantes perjudiciales para la salud (CO y PM), así como y emisiones que contribuyen al calentamiento global y al cambio climático (CO2 y BC). En este trabajo proponemos modelos para mejorar la eficiencia energética utilizando el modelo tradicional como punto de partida, tal como lo utiliza la comunidad local. Para las poblaciones que viven en condiciones muy críticas y precarias, se han propuesto "insertos de cerámica" que pueden fabricarse y añadirse a las estufas que utilizan en la actualidad. Estos insertos pueden actuar sobre el rendimiento con mejoras del 15%. Se ha propuesto y analizado una segunda mejora basada en la combustión natural de la estufa de carbón ICS-C. El modelo más prometedor es la estufa que utiliza el principio de micro gasificación de la biomasa. Se han diseñado dos modelos de esta estufa, el modelo ICS-G1 con un solo reactor de combustión y el modelo ICS-G2 con dos reactores de combustión, y se han realizado análisis de sostenibilidad con aplicación directa a las comunidades locales. El modelo de micro gasificación propuesto funciona con un suministro de aire forzado con una gran flexibilidad de variación de la potencia de fuego según el tipo de comida a cocinar. El sistema de suministro de aire es provisto por un pequeño motor alimentado por energía solar con autonomía proporcionada por una pequeña batería de litio recargable. Los modelos de gasificación muestran importantes ventajas en comparación con el sistema tradicional, mejor eficiencia energética, al necesitar menos de la mitad de leña que con la tradicional, reducciones drásticas de las emisiones contaminantes y atmosféricas, con un ahorro de emisiones de CO2 en la ciudad de Kinshasa estimadas en 3405 kton/año y una reducción de casi la mitad del tiempo dedicado a la preparación de alimentos. Estas estufas pueden utilizar todo tipo de combustibles sólidos, además del carbón, se realizaron ensayos con combustibles alternativos que provienen de residuos agrícolas (BSW3) de esta forma se limita la presión ejercida sobre los bosques debido al uso de leña para cocinar. Los métodos de prueba utilizados son la prueba de ebullición del agua y la prueba de cocción controlada, con esta última se realiza una preparación de alimentos en un ambiente controlado. Los resultados de estas mejoras se han aplicado a casos reales en Kinshasa y Bandundu. / [CA] Quasi la meitat de la població mundial no té accés a energies com l'electricitat o el gas i han d'utilitzar forçosament biomassa per a cuinar, principalment llenya i carbó. El que en països desenvolupats sembla un luxe, en molts altres és una obligació, ja que no hi ha una altra alternativa. Amb un xicotet estalvi en el combustible que utilitzen aquestes estufes dels països sense accés a una altra mena d'energia, el resultat global és extraordinari. En el cas de la República Democràtica del Congo més del 80% de la població realitza les seues activitats culinàries utilitzant biomassa sòlida (llenya, carbó vegetal, etc.) Per a cuinar en les zones rurals i els extraradis de les grans ciutats s'utilitza la tradicional estufa de tres pedres (TCS-3P) i en les zones urbanes la tradicional estufa de carbó vegetal (TCS-C). El principal desavantatge d'aquesta pràctica és una combustió de baixa eficiència energètica, amb la conseqüència directa d'un consum excessiu de matèries primeres com a carbó i llenya i la corresponent desforestació. Aquests equips de cuina tradicionals emeten molts contaminants perjudicials per a la salut (CO i PM), així com i emissions que contribueixen al calfament global i al canvi climàtic (CO₂ i BC). En aquest treball proposem models per a millorar l'eficiència energètica utilitzant el model tradicional com a punt de partida, tal com ho utilitza la comunitat local. Per a les poblacions que viuen en condicions molt crítiques i precàries, s'han proposat "inserits de ceràmica" que poden fabricar-se i afegir-se a les estufes que utilitzen en l'actualitat. Aquests inserits poden actuar sobre el rendiment amb millores del 15%. S'ha proposat i analitzat una segona millora basada en la combustió natural de l'estufa de carbó ICS-C. El model més prometedor és l'estufa que utilitza el principi de micro gasificació de la biomassa. S'han dissenyat dos models d'aquesta estufa, el model (ICS-G1) amb un sol reactor de combustió i el model (ICS-G2) amb dos reactors de combustió, i s'han realitzat anàlisi de sostenibilitat amb aplicació directa a les comunitats locals. El model de micro gasificació proposat funciona amb un subministrament d'aire forçat amb una gran flexibilitat de variació de la potència de foc segons la mena de menjar a cuinar. El sistema de subministrament d'aire és proveït per un xicotet motor alimentat per energia solar amb autonomia proporcionada per una xicoteta bateria de liti recarregable. Els models de gasificació mostren importants avantatges en comparació amb el sistema tradicional, millor eficiència energètica, en necessitar menys de la meitat de llenya que amb la tradicional, reduccions dràstiques de les emissions contaminants i atmosfèriques, amb un estalvi d'emissions de CO₂ a la ciutat de Kinshasa estimades en 3405 kton/any i una reducció de quasi la meitat del temps dedicat a la preparació d'aliments. Aquestes estufes poden utilitzar tot tipus de combustibles sòlids, a més del carbó, es van realitzar assajos amb combustibles alternatius que provenen de residus agrícoles (BSW3) d'aquesta forma es limita la pressió exercida sobre els boscos a causa de l'ús de llenya per a cuinar. Els mètodes de prova utilitzats són la prova d'ebullició de l'aigua i la prova de cocció controlada, amb aquesta última es realitza una preparació d'aliments en un ambient controlat. Els resultats d'aquestes millores s'han aplicat a casos reals a Kinshasa i Bandundu. / [EN] Abstract Almost half of the world's population does not have access to energy such as electricity or gas and they have to use biomass for cooking, mainly firewood and charcoal. What in developed countries seems a luxury, in many others is an obligation, since there is no other alternative. With a small saving in the fuel used by these stoves in countries without access to other types of energy, the overall result is extraordinary. In the case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, more than 80% of the population carries out their culinary activities using solid biomass (firewood, charcoal, etc.). The traditional stove is used to cook in rural areas and on the outskirts of large cities. three-stone TCS-3P and in urban areas the traditional TCS-C charcoal stove. The main disadvantage of this practice is low energy efficiency combustion, with the direct consequence of excessive consumption of raw materials such as coal and firewood and the corresponding deforestation. These traditional kitchen equipment emits many harmful pollutants for health (CO and PM), as well as emissions that contribute to global warming and climate change (CO2 and BC). In this work we propose models to improve energy efficiency using the traditional model as a starting point, as used by the local community. For populations living in very critical and precarious conditions, "ceramic inserts" have been proposed that can be manufactured and added to the stoves they use today. These inserts can act on performance with improvements of 15%. A second improvement based on the natural combustion of the ICS-C coal stove has been proposed and analyzed. The most promising model is the stove that uses the principle of microgasification of biomass. Two models of this stove have been designed, the ICS-G1 model with a single combustion reactor and the ICS-G2 model with two combustion reactors, and sustainability analyzes have been carried out with direct application to local communities. The proposed micro gasification model works with a forced air supply with great flexibility of variation of the fire power according to the type of food to be cooked. The air supply system is provided by a small motor powered by solar energy with autonomy provided by a small rechargeable lithium battery. The gasification models show important advantages compared to the traditional system, better energy efficiency, since it requires less than half as much firewood than with the traditional system, drastic reductions in pollutant and atmospheric emissions, with savings in CO2 emissions in the city of Kinshasa estimated at 3405 kton / year and a reduction of almost half the time spent on food preparation. These stoves can use all types of solid fuels, in addition to coal, tests were carried out with alternative fuels that come from agricultural residues (BSW3) in this way the pressure exerted on the forests due to the use of firewood for cooking is limited. The test methods used are the water boiling test and the controlled cooking test, with the latter a food preparation is performed in a controlled environment. The results of these improvements have been applied to real cases in Kinshasa and Bandundu. / Mulumba Ilunga, Ó. (2021). Estudio de la optimización de estufas de cocción tradicionales empleadas en países en desarrollo utilizando biomasa leña gasificada (aplicado a la R.D.Congo) [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/163655