Credit Contract This diploma thesis is concerned with the provision of credit on the basis of the Credit Contract under Sections 497 - 507 of the Commercial Code. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide a detailed analysis of the regulation of the Credit Contract in the Commercial Code. Within the analysis of particular questions concerned I try to take into consideration current developments in case law, doctrine and banking practices. The subject of my interest is not solely the Credit Contract itself. I also focus on imminently related contractual instruments such as the Loan Contract under the Civil Code or credit business terms. The goal of this thesis is also to point to significant interpretation problems along with my own critical view and proposed solutions. Furthermore, I point out in a limited extent to partial issues regarding the regulation of the Customer Credit. Finally, I could not omit the analysis of the regulation of the Credit Contract and its related contractual instruments in the new Civil Code. The definition, nature and economic importance of the credit are delineated in the first chapter. These opening remarks help the reader to better understand the further following chapters dealing with the Credit Contract itself. The second chapter concentrates on the system of...

A short term forecast model is developed for use by the Baltimore FICB in estimating their new money requests two months in advance. New money requests are the difference between new loans made and paydown. New money requests were forecasted by estimating two separate equations, one for new loans made and one for paydown. Ordinary least squares was used to estimate the parameters. Results of the estimation are reported. The forecast model developed in the study accounts for 83.59 percent of the monthly variation within the database in new money requests. Tests of the model include Theil's inequality coefficient, turning point analysis, and forecasting beyond the database. The results of these tests indicate that the model's estimates closely track actual new money requests. Due to the presence of multicollinearity, the individual effects of the independent variables are not identified. Multicollinearity was not a concern, however, since the model is to be used exclusively for forecasting. In addition to the statistical results, a computerized forecasting program is developed. The program can be used to predict new money requests for the Baltimore FICB two months in advance. It incorporates the results of the research into an easy to use package requiring a minimum of user supplied input. / Master of Science

O presente trabalho visa avaliar os efeitos dos programas de direcionamento de crédito na economia brasileira. Para tanto, será construído um modelo de equilíbrio geral com agentes heterogêneos, capaz de reproduzir a estrutura do mercado de crédito do Brasil. Tal modelo será calibrado utilizando os dados da RAIS (Relatório Anual de Informações) e do SCR (Sistema de Informações de Crédito) para a seguir serem realizados exercícios contrafactuais alterando os parâmetros da política de crédito. Como resultado, encontra-se que o fim dos programas de crédito direcionado gera um aumento produto, reduz a desigualdade e o tamanho médio das firmas, além de aumentar a produtividade, a inclusão financeira das firmas e o bem-estar. Além disto, os ganhos gerados pelo encerramento de tais programas se mostraram maiores do que políticas alternativas, como a focalização do crédito direcionado para os indivíduos mais produtivos ou para os mais pobres / The present work aims to evaluate the effects of earmarked credit programs in the Brazilian economy. For this purpose, will be developed a general equilibrium model with heterogeneous agents, capable of reproducing the structure of the Brazilian credit market. This model will be calibrated using the data from the RAIS (Annual Information Report) and the SCR (Credit Information System), in order to carry out counterfactual exercises by changing the parameters of the credit policy. As a result, it is found that the end of earmarked credit programs generates a product increase, reduces inequality and the average size of firms, as well as increases productivity, the financial inclusion of firms and the welfare. In addition, the gains generated by the closure of such programs have been shown to be greater than alternative policies, such as targeting the earmarked credit for the most productive individuals or the poorest

<p> </p><p><p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p></p><strong><strong><p>Titel:</p><p><strong>Datum: </strong>16/1-2009</p><p><strong>Ämne/kurs: </strong>Företagsekonomi, C-uppsats i redovisning, 15 p</p><p><strong>Författare: </strong>Hanna Ekdahl, Gabriel Oktay, Tigran Zacharjan</p><p><strong>Handledare: </strong>Ann Wetterlind Dörner</p><p><strong>Bakgrund och problem: </strong></p><p>När banker lånar ut pengar tar de av de medel som kunder satt in på banken. För att skydda kunder måste banken ha en viss kapitaltäckning. På grund av behov av en mer anpassad riskkänslighet har nya kapitaltäckningsregler i form av Basel II tagits fram. Genom dessa regler samt ett internationellt anpassat regelverk vill vi undersöka hur banker värderar och hanterar sina lånefordringar.</p><p>De frågeställningar som vi besvarar i uppsatsen är:</p><p> Hur värderar banker sina lånefordringar och hur hanteras de risker som en lånefordran för med sig?</p><p> Hur har Basel II bidragit till en bättre riskhantering av lånefordringar?</p><p> Är det skillnad nu när det råder lågkonjunktur?</p><strong><strong><p>Syfte:</p><p>Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur banker värderar och hanterar sina lånefordringar när Basel II har börjat gälla. Vi vill också ta reda på om det blir någon förändring under rådande lågkonjunktur.</p><p><strong>Metod: </strong></p><p>Genom tre semistrukturerade intervjuer har en kvalitativ undersökning genomförts. Intervjuerna som gjordes var med Handelsbanken, KPMG och Finansinspektionen. Valet av respondenter är baserade på att få en bred syn på våra frågeställningar.</p><p><strong>Slutsatser: </strong></p><p>Vid utgivning av ett lån är det återbetalningsförmågan som är det mest centrala. Beroende på hur det ekonomiska läget är i företaget som banken har utgivit en kredit till görs sedan en uppföljning av krediten med olika tidsintervall. En tätare uppföljning kan till exempel gälla utsatta branscher under lågkonjunkturen. I övrigt är det inte någon större förändring av hanteringen av lånefordringar under konjunkturnedgången. Om det finns ett behov av att skriva ned en lånefordran krävs ett objektivt belägg som är varaktigt. Ett tredje kriterium som måste uppfyllas är att banken ska riskera att förlora pengar. Lånefordran skrivs sedan ned med hänsyn till säkerhetens värde. Implementeringen av Basel II är inte klar ännu men förändringar har skett. Fler parametrar vägs in för att öka riskkänsligheten. Räntan har diversifierats och banker jobbar mot de avancerade verktygen som finns i regelverket.</p></strong></strong></strong>Krediter – En studie om hur banker hanterar och värderar sina lånefordringar</strong></p> / <p><strong><p>Title:</p><p>Credits - a study about how banks handle and evaluates their loan requirements</p><p><strong>Date: </strong>16/1-2009</p><p><strong>Course: </strong>Business Economics<strong>, </strong>Candidate essay, major accounting, 15 p <strong>Authors: </strong>Hanna Ekdahl, Gabriel Oktay, Tigran Zacharjan</p><p><strong>Advisor: </strong>Ann Wetterlind Dörner</p><p><strong>Background and problem: </strong>When banks give out credits they take of the means that customers place in the bank. In order to protect customers, the bank has to have certain capital coverage. Because of the need of tailored tools that are more risk aware, new capital coverage rules in the form of Basel II have been developed. Through these rules and an international tailored legislation we want to examine how banks evaluate and handle their loan requirements.</p><p>The questions that we answer in this essay are:</p></strong></p><p> How do banks evaluate their loan requirements and how do they handle the risks that a loan requirement brings?</p><p> How has Basel II contributed to a better risk handling of loan requirements?</p><p> Is there any difference when we are experiencing recession?</p><p><strong><p>Purpose:</p><p>The purpose with the essay is to examine how banks evaluates and handles their loan requirements when Basel II has begun to apply. We also want to examine the differences in a state of recession.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong></p><p>Through three semi-structured interviews, a qualitative survey has been implemented. The interviews has been addressed to Handelsbanken, KPMG and Finansinspektionen. The choice of respondents is based on the ambition of getting a broad view on our issues.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong></p><p>The most central requirement during credit give outs is the repayment ability. Depending on how the economic situation is in the company that takes the credit, a follow-up with different intervals are done. A more frequent follow-up can for example concern exposed sectors during recession. In other respect, there is no bigger change of the handling of loan requirements during recession. If there is a need of writing down a loan the requirements are an objective proof that is permanent. A third criterion is that the bank is experiencing a risk of losing funds. Loan requirement is writhed down with regard of the security's value. The implementation of Basel II is yet not finished but already changes are taking form. More parameters are weighed in, in order to increase the risk sensitivity. The interest has been diversified and banks are working toward the more advanced tools that are in the legislation.</p></strong></p>

Titel: Datum: 16/1-2009 Ämne/kurs: Företagsekonomi, C-uppsats i redovisning, 15 p Författare: Hanna Ekdahl, Gabriel Oktay, Tigran Zacharjan Handledare: Ann Wetterlind Dörner Bakgrund och problem: När banker lånar ut pengar tar de av de medel som kunder satt in på banken. För att skydda kunder måste banken ha en viss kapitaltäckning. På grund av behov av en mer anpassad riskkänslighet har nya kapitaltäckningsregler i form av Basel II tagits fram. Genom dessa regler samt ett internationellt anpassat regelverk vill vi undersöka hur banker värderar och hanterar sina lånefordringar. De frågeställningar som vi besvarar i uppsatsen är:  Hur värderar banker sina lånefordringar och hur hanteras de risker som en lånefordran för med sig?  Hur har Basel II bidragit till en bättre riskhantering av lånefordringar?  Är det skillnad nu när det råder lågkonjunktur? Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur banker värderar och hanterar sina lånefordringar när Basel II har börjat gälla. Vi vill också ta reda på om det blir någon förändring under rådande lågkonjunktur. Metod: Genom tre semistrukturerade intervjuer har en kvalitativ undersökning genomförts. Intervjuerna som gjordes var med Handelsbanken, KPMG och Finansinspektionen. Valet av respondenter är baserade på att få en bred syn på våra frågeställningar. Slutsatser: Vid utgivning av ett lån är det återbetalningsförmågan som är det mest centrala. Beroende på hur det ekonomiska läget är i företaget som banken har utgivit en kredit till görs sedan en uppföljning av krediten med olika tidsintervall. En tätare uppföljning kan till exempel gälla utsatta branscher under lågkonjunkturen. I övrigt är det inte någon större förändring av hanteringen av lånefordringar under konjunkturnedgången. Om det finns ett behov av att skriva ned en lånefordran krävs ett objektivt belägg som är varaktigt. Ett tredje kriterium som måste uppfyllas är att banken ska riskera att förlora pengar. Lånefordran skrivs sedan ned med hänsyn till säkerhetens värde. Implementeringen av Basel II är inte klar ännu men förändringar har skett. Fler parametrar vägs in för att öka riskkänsligheten. Räntan har diversifierats och banker jobbar mot de avancerade verktygen som finns i regelverket. Krediter – En studie om hur banker hanterar och värderar sina lånefordringar / Title: Credits - a study about how banks handle and evaluates their loan requirements Date: 16/1-2009 Course: Business Economics, Candidate essay, major accounting, 15 p Authors: Hanna Ekdahl, Gabriel Oktay, Tigran Zacharjan Advisor: Ann Wetterlind Dörner Background and problem: When banks give out credits they take of the means that customers place in the bank. In order to protect customers, the bank has to have certain capital coverage. Because of the need of tailored tools that are more risk aware, new capital coverage rules in the form of Basel II have been developed. Through these rules and an international tailored legislation we want to examine how banks evaluate and handle their loan requirements. The questions that we answer in this essay are:  How do banks evaluate their loan requirements and how do they handle the risks that a loan requirement brings?  How has Basel II contributed to a better risk handling of loan requirements?  Is there any difference when we are experiencing recession? Purpose: The purpose with the essay is to examine how banks evaluates and handles their loan requirements when Basel II has begun to apply. We also want to examine the differences in a state of recession. Method: Through three semi-structured interviews, a qualitative survey has been implemented. The interviews has been addressed to Handelsbanken, KPMG and Finansinspektionen. The choice of respondents is based on the ambition of getting a broad view on our issues. Conclusions: The most central requirement during credit give outs is the repayment ability. Depending on how the economic situation is in the company that takes the credit, a follow-up with different intervals are done. A more frequent follow-up can for example concern exposed sectors during recession. In other respect, there is no bigger change of the handling of loan requirements during recession. If there is a need of writing down a loan the requirements are an objective proof that is permanent. A third criterion is that the bank is experiencing a risk of losing funds. Loan requirement is writhed down with regard of the security's value. The implementation of Basel II is yet not finished but already changes are taking form. More parameters are weighed in, in order to increase the risk sensitivity. The interest has been diversified and banks are working toward the more advanced tools that are in the legislation.

O presente trabalho visa avaliar os efeitos dos programas de direcionamento de crédito na economia brasileira. Para tanto, será construído um modelo de equilíbrio geral com agentes heterogêneos, capaz de reproduzir a estrutura do mercado de crédito do Brasil. Tal modelo será calibrado utilizando os dados da RAIS (Relatório Anual de Informações) e do SCR (Sistema de Informações de Crédito) para a seguir serem realizados exercícios contrafactuais alterando os parâmetros da política de crédito. Como resultado, encontra-se que o fim dos programas de crédito direcionado gera um aumento produto, reduz a desigualdade e o tamanho médio das firmas, além de aumentar a produtividade, a inclusão financeira das firmas e o bem-estar. Além disto, os ganhos gerados pelo encerramento de tais programas se mostraram maiores do que políticas alternativas, como a focalização do crédito direcionado para os indivíduos mais produtivos ou para os mais pobres / The present work aims to evaluate the effects of earmarked credit programs in the Brazilian economy. For this purpose, will be developed a general equilibrium model with heterogeneous agents, capable of reproducing the structure of the Brazilian credit market. This model will be calibrated using the data from the RAIS (Annual Information Report) and the SCR (Credit Information System), in order to carry out counterfactual exercises by changing the parameters of the credit policy. As a result, it is found that the end of earmarked credit programs generates a product increase, reduces inequality and the average size of firms, as well as increases productivity, the financial inclusion of firms and the welfare. In addition, the gains generated by the closure of such programs have been shown to be greater than alternative policies, such as targeting the earmarked credit for the most productive individuals or the poorest

The goal of the thesis is to evaluate effectiveness of bank instruments used in international trade to compare individual instruments as for advantages and disadvantages and to focus on their use in connection with other bank products. The thesis is divided in four main areas - risks in international trade, bank instruments, documents used in international trade and other bank products.

Cette thèse analyse à travers une étude de cas, le parcours d’un programme de micro-crédit rural mis en place par l’ONG Plan International, transformé en institution formelle et intégré aujourd’hui dans l’un des plus grands réseaux mutualistes du Sénégal : l’UM-PAMECAS (Union des Mutuelles du Partenariat pour la Mobilisation de l'Epargne et du Crédit au Sénégal). Notre objectif était de montrer comment les organisations de microfinance concilient les logiques sociale et financière, à priori en opposition, dans leur mode d’action après une transformation institutionnelle. Compte tenu de la diversité des règles et des modes d’actions observés au sein des organisations étudiées, nous avons mobilisé l’économie des conventions pour construire notre cadre d’analyse. La thèse s’appuie sur une analyse qualitative diachronique des logiques en présence, de façon à comprendre ce qui les soustend, les mécanismes et enjeux de pouvoir qui les font évoluer et se stabiliser. Sur une période s’étalant de 2006 à 2008 nous avons mené des enquêtes auprès de 169 personnes aux statuts divers (salariés, élus, bénéficiaire des crédits, etc.). Ce travail a apporté un éclairage sur le processus de transformation institutionnelle des organisations de microfinance rural et ses enjeux. Nous avons montré que grâce à une méthodologie combinant plusieurs principes relevant de cités différentes mais essentiellement rattachés à une « logique sociale », les organisations de microfinance de premières générations ont permis à des personnes vivant en milieu rural, dont le profil socio-économique n’intéressait pas les banques commerciales, d’accéder aux services financiers. La transformation institutionnelle induite par des facteurs exogènes et endogènes a apporté des bouleversements auxquelles les organisations devaient faire face pour assurer leur pérennité. Notre recherche a montré que pour réussir cette transition et éviter des conflits, des concertations doivent être menées tout au long du processus avec l’ensemble des acteurs afin que tous s’entendent sur le but de la transformation, la façon dont le processus doit être mené et les réformes à mettre en place. En outre, les nouvelles procédures mises en place doivent être en adéquation avec les spécificités locales. Par ailleurs, cette thèse a montré la forte prédominance des tontines. Ces dernières ont fortement évolué et se sont enrichies grâce à l’hybridation de règles marchandes, domestiques et civiques qui en font aujourd’hui, des dispositifs locaux concurrençant fortement la collecte de l’épargne au niveau des structures formelles / This thesis analyses, trough a case study, the operation of a rural micro-credit program implemented by Plan international NGO. It has then been changed into a formal institution and integrated into one of the largest network of mutual organizations in Senegal: UMPAMECAS. Our objective was to show how micro-finance organizations reconcile social and financial logics that are primarily contradictory, in their action after institutional changes. Considering the diversity of rules and operation modes observed in the institutions under scrutiny, we have mobilized the convention economy to build the framework of our analysis. The thesis is based on a diachronic quantitative analysis of those logics to understand what underlies them, power mechanism and stakes that make them evolve and stabilize. For a period from 2006 through 2008, we surveyed 169 people from different (wages-earners, elected, credits beneficiaries, etc.). This work has cast light on the transformation process of rural microfinance and its stakes. We have shown that, thanks to a methodology combining several principles from different cities, but essentially related to a “social logic”, the first generation of microfinance institutions have enabled several people living in rural areas, whose economic profile did not appeal to commercial banks, to get access to financial services. The institutional transformations induced by endogenous and exogenous facts have brought changes which should be dealt with by the institutions to ensure their sustainability. Our research has shown that to survive the transition and avoid conflicts, consultations should be conducted all through the process with all the stakeholders for all to agree on the objective of the transition, the way the process should be conducted and the reforms that need to be implemented. Besides, the newly implemented procedures should match local specificities. Furthermore, this thesis has shown the supremacy of the “tontine” systems (rotating saving and credit associations). Those systems have deeply evolved and enriched due to the hybridization of commercial, domestic and civic rules that make them today local organizations that strongly challenge formal structures in the collecting of savings

The thesis is divided into two parts -- theoretical and practical. In first part hedging instruments, namely the Letter of Credit, Documentary Collection, Bill of Exchange, Factoring, Forfaiting and Bank Guarantee are analyzed. The aim of analysis is to describe the basic characteristics of instruments and course of these instruments. Subsequently, the instruments are compared to each other on the basis of the advantages and disadvatages they bring to participants. The next part is devoted to an analysis of charges associated with the use of particular hedging instruments in selected banks and the comparison of instruments based on selected criteria. The specific use of the hedging instrument is shown in the case study.

This thesis deals with the operational business lending . There is an analysis of current capabilities in the lending operations of banks subjectively defined , and the selection of the best product in the specific context of a fictitious business in this thesis. Based on the results of the analysis and comparison is given a rank of banks and they provide products that are suitable for fictitious businesses.