D. Litt. et Phil. (African Politics) / This study is an exploration of transitional justice mechanisms available to post conflict communities. It is a context sensitive and sustained interrogation of the effectiveness of endogenous transitional justice mechanisms in post-colonial Zimbabwe. The study utilised Ruti Teitel’s (1997: 2009-2080) realist/idealist theory as its theoretical framework. Using the case of Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular, it analyses the application of imported idealist transitional justice mechanisms, mainly International Criminal Court (ICC) trials. It also debates the efficacy of realist transitional justice mechanisms, mainly the South African model of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).The study explores the application of what it terms broad realist transitional justice mechanisms used mostly in rural areas of Zimbabwe to achieve peace building and reconciliation. These modes of everyday healing and reconciliation include the traditional institutions of ngozi (avenging spirit), botso (self-shaming), chenura (cleansing ceremonies), nhimbe (community working groups) and nyaradzo (memorials). The key finding of this exploration is that local realist transitional justice mechanisms are more efficacious in fostering peace building and reconciliation than imported idealist mechanisms such as the ICC trials and imported realist mechanisms such as the TRC. More value can be realised when imported realist mechanisms and local realist transitional justice mechanisms complement each other. The study contributes to the literature on transitional justice in general and bottom-up, victim-centred reconciliation in particular. It offers a different approach to the study of transitional justice in post conflict Zimbabwe by recasting the debate away from the liberal peace paradigm which critiques state centric top-down approaches such as trials, clemencies, amnesties and institutional reform. The study considers the agency of ‘ordinary’ people in resolving the after effects of politically motivated harm. It also lays the foundation for further research into other traditional transitional justice mechanisms used for peace building and reconciliation elsewhere in Africa / Political Sciences

Une notion fondamentale en droit pénal pour la première fois mise en perspective dans le cadre d’un travail de recherche approfondi. L’évaluation de ce thème est méritée tant cette compétence est sujette à conséquence. En l’évaluant in extenso, des incidences latentes y acquièrent droit de cité tant dans le champ du droit public et du droit privé, que dans la sphère procédurale ou en droit pénal de fond. Le point nodal de ce thème constitue l’appréciation des causes à effet dans l’étude de l’évolution de la compétence matérielle de jugement en matière pénale.À l’heure de la confrontation entre plusieurs nécessités de la justice répressive immanentes à une telle étude s’agrègent des tendances entre égalité et individualisation, juste temps et célérité, ou encore légalité et équité ; à l’instar de ces défis évolue la compétence étudiée.L’étude menée l’a été sous de nouveaux auspices tout au long du travail de rédaction. L’actualité sur ce thème reste brûlante. Force est de constater que la compétence des juridictions peut faire l’objet de prospectives.Si des nécessités de la justice a priori antagonistes postulent à fournir des contradictions, des voies médianes peuvent être envisagées de manière à trouver équilibre. / A core notion in criminal law for the first time put into perspective within the framework of a detailed research work. The assessment of that theme is deserved as this competence is subject to consequences. By evaluating it in extenso, latent incidences find a legitimate place as much in the field of public and private law than in the procedural sphere or in the criminal law. The key point of that theme sets up the assessment of causes and effects in the study of the jurisdiction's evolution in criminal matter.At the time of the confrontation between several necessities of the repressive justice which are immanent to such a study, tendencies between equality and individualization, fair time and swiftness, or legality and equity are joining them ; following the example of those challenges, the jurisdiction is evolving.This study was led under new auspices throughout the writing of that work.The topicality on that theme remains ardent.It should be noted that the jurisdiction of courts of law can be the object of prospectives. If justice's necessities, which seem a priori antagonists, reveal contradictions, middle ways can be taken into account in a way to strike a balance.

Les crimes de guerre constituent des violations graves du droit international pénal. Cependant, chaque nouveau conflit, qu'il ait un caractère international ou non, donne lieu à la perpétration de tels crimes. Pourquoi ? Y aurait-il des éléments prédisposant aux comportements de violence ? Le XXe siècle est le siècle de la justice internationale pénale caractérisée par la mise en place de tribunaux militaires internationaux après la découverte des atrocités de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, puis de tribunaux internationaux « ad hoc » pour se terminer par l'instauration d’une Cour internationale permanente en matière pénale. Les tribunaux ad hoc instaurés pour l’ex-Yougoslavie et pour le Rwanda ont permis que soient appliquées aux conflits armés non internationaux, les conventions internationales définissant les règles régissant les conflits armés internationaux. Quel a été l’impact de la jurisprudence de ces tribunaux sur la notion de crime de guerre ? Enfin, même si la mise en place de la Cour pénale internationale constitue un espoir dans la lutte contre l’impunité, son Statut souligne le difficile équilibre qu’elle opère entre la souveraineté des États et la volonté d’une justice universelle. Aux côtés de la justice institutionnelle est apparue la « justice transitionnelle », dont l’un des objectifs est de permettre la transition entre le temps de guerre et le temps de paix, dans les meilleures conditions possible, et ce, malgré les dilemmes auxquels elle doit faire face. Après tout, un retour rapide à une paix durable n’est-il pas préférable ? La justice transitionnelle nous emmène à nous poser la question suivante : faut-il juger ou pardonner les crimes de guerre ? / War crimes are serious violations of international criminal law. However, each new conflict, international or non-international, gives rise to the commission of war crimes. Why ? Does-it have factors that predispose to violent behaviours ? The 20th century is the century of international criminal law which is first characterized by the establishment of international military tribunals after the discovery of the atrocities of World War II, then international tribunals « ad hoc », eventually it ends by the introduction of an international criminal court. International Criminal Tribunals established for former Yugoslavia and Rwanda have permitted the application of International Conventions, defining armed conflict’s rules, to non-international armed conflicts. What was the impact of these tribunals’ case laws on war crime concept ? Eventually, even if the establishment of International Criminal Court gave hope to combat impunity, its status highlights the delicate balance between states’ sovereignty and the willingness of universal justice. Transitional justice was introduced to complete or to replace institutional justice in some cases. One of transitional justice’s objectives is to make a transition a transition between wartime and peacetime as smooth as possible even if many challenges remain. In fact, the fast restoration of lasting peace would it not be better ? The transitional justice leads us to wonder if we have to judge or forgive war crimes ?

During the 1990s Yugoslavia and Rwanda were swept by wars accompanied by serious violations of international humanitarian law. Grave and severe crimes wiped away lives and destroyed properties. The United Nations Security Council determined that the violations committed constituted threats to international peace and security, declaring itself empowered to take action. It established international ad hoc criminal tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda with the mandate of prosecuting individuals responsible for those crimes as an enforcement measure under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. Investigating the tribunals’ effectiveness enables one to assess whether they achieved the anticipated outcomes based on the tribunals’ mission, goals, and objectives without creating other problems. The research relies on naturalism and positivism to put the tribunals in a moral and ethical perspective. By examining how the tribunals were established, their objectives, the investigation and prosecution processes, the reliance on guilty plea and judicial notice and the imputation of criminal responsibility by applying joint criminal enterprise and command responsibility doctrines; the study argues that prosecution has not been an effective tool as contemplated by the Security Council. An analytical and comparative review of various domestic and international legal resources helped to provide an insightful approach for an effective prosecution of international crimes. Credible, legitimate and legal judicial institutions in which professional judges and prosecutors discharge their function independently, impartially and are accountable may achieve justice for the victims of international crimes. Ad hoc tribunals failed to thoroughly investigate and assume the dual role of prosecution. They conveniently used legal procedural tools that fit petty domestic crimes; unfortunately demeaning the magnitude of international crimes of concern. Criminal responsibility was mostly imputed without properly scrutinising the legality, extent, actual participation and guilty mind of the alleged perpetrators. Effectiveness should be a value assessment. Imposed and overburdened ad hoc tribunals are inappropriate and should be abandoned. / Public, Constitutional, and International / LL. D.

The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has been both contentious and successful. By examining the ICTY from a Levinasian ethical standpoint, we might be able to understand how the court uses language to enforce ethical and moral standards upon post-war societies. Using linguistic methods of analysis combined with traditional data about the ICTY, I empirically examine the court using ordinary least squares (OLS) in order to show the impact that language has upon the court's decision making process. I hypothesize that the court is an ethical entity, and therefore we should not see any evidence of bias against Serbs and that language will provide a robust view of the court as an ethical mechanism.

This study is an exploration of transitional justice mechanisms available to post conflict communities. It is a context sensitive and sustained interrogation of the effectiveness of endogenous transitional justice mechanisms in post-colonial Zimbabwe. The study utilised Ruti Teitel’s (1997: 2009-2080) realist/idealist theory as its theoretical framework. Using the case of Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular, it analyses the application of imported idealist transitional justice mechanisms, mainly International Criminal Court (ICC) trials. It also debates the efficacy of realist transitional justice mechanisms, mainly the South African model of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).The study explores the application of what it terms broad realist transitional justice mechanisms used mostly in rural areas of Zimbabwe to achieve peace building and reconciliation. These modes of everyday healing and reconciliation include the traditional institutions of ngozi (avenging spirit), botso (self-shaming), chenura (cleansing ceremonies), nhimbe (community working groups) and nyaradzo (memorials). The key finding of this exploration is that local realist transitional justice mechanisms are more efficacious in fostering peace building and reconciliation than imported idealist mechanisms such as the ICC trials and imported realist mechanisms such as the TRC. More value can be realised when imported realist mechanisms and local realist transitional justice mechanisms complement each other. The study contributes to the literature on transitional justice in general and bottom-up, victim-centred reconciliation in particular. It offers a different approach to the study of transitional justice in post conflict Zimbabwe by recasting the debate away from the liberal peace paradigm which critiques state centric top-down approaches such as trials, clemencies, amnesties and institutional reform. The study considers the agency of ‘ordinary’ people in resolving the after effects of politically motivated harm. It also lays the foundation for further research into other traditional transitional justice mechanisms used for peace building and reconciliation elsewhere in Africa / Political Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Politics)

À ce moment charnière où les T.P.I. accomplissent leurs Stratégies d’achèvement et où la C.P.I. va rendre son premier jugement, il est essentiel de faire un point sur le droit international pénal et particulièrement sur les statuts de victime selon ce droit. En effet, ceux-ci symbolisent les tenants et aboutissants de l’ensemble du droit international pénal. Tantôt oubliée, tantôt sacralisée, la victime ne laisse pas indifférent, et encore moins lorsqu’elle a subi un crime international. Sa reconnaissance a d’ailleurs bouleversé l’économie générale du droit international pénal qui lui accorde une place de plus en plus grande. Une étude approfondie des droits des différentes juridictions permet de constater qu’il n’y a pas un mais plusieurs statuts de victime. La pluralité de ces statuts réside dans l’existence de plusieurs qualités juridiques de victime et de plusieurs régimes juridiques applicables à celle-ci. L’analyse des différents facteurs de cette pluralité donne lieu de voir qu’elle est une force et non une faiblesse du droit international pénal. Elle est la voie médiane entre le rejet de la considération des victimes comme une masse informe et leur impossible prise en compte individuelle. Mais, comme pour le statut du particulier en droit international public général, l’équilibre est parfois difficile à trouver et les statuts sont perfectibles. C’est pourquoi, des propositions d’enrichissements des statuts de victime sont faites et, pour chacune d’entre elles, il est observé si elle est réalisable et souhaitable. Un système de justice pénale internationale serait en construction. La victime pourrait finir par trouver une place en son sein qui satisferait l’ensemble des protagonistes de la répression des crimes internationaux, y compris et surtout, les États. / While the ICT carry out their Completion Strategies, the ICC will soon pronounce its first decision. At this point, itis important to assess international criminal law and especially victim’s status according to this law. Actually, theysymbolise the ins and outs of international criminal law. Once forgotten, once sacralised, the victim never leavesus indifferent, above all a victim of international crimes. His or her recognition has deeply altered internationalcriminal law, which now gives him or her an increasing place. Studying the laws of the international criminal courtsshows that there is not one status but several status of victim. This plurality comes from the fact that there areseveral legal characterisations of victim and several legal conditions. The analysis of the different factors leadingto this multiplicity of legal status enables us to envision this legal diversity as a power of international criminal law,rather than one of its weaknesses. It is the middle way between considering victims as a shapeless, undefinedand undifferentiated crowd and considering each victim individually. But, as with the status of private persons ininternational public law, reaching and keeping a well-balanced status is difficult ; and these are perfectible andcan be improved. This is the reason why some suggestions for the enrichment of the different status are madeand, for each of them, there is a thorough questioning and analysis of whether it is feasible and desirable. As aninternational criminal justice system is under construction, the victim could find a place in it which would satisfy allthe protagonists of the legal proceedings against international crimes, including and particularly States.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of North Texas, Dec., 2008. / Title from title page display. Includes bibliographical references.

Après avoir procédé à un état des lieux de la poursuite des crimes internationaux et de l'exercice de l'opportunité des poursuites du procureur tant au niveau national qu'international, il s'agira de mettre en exergue les faiblesses procédurales encadrant l'action du Procureur lors de la phase préliminaire du procès pénal et les inconvénients générés par sa politique pénale de poursuite au sein des TPI ad hoc. En effet, ces défectuosités participent à l'apparence de partialité du Procureur international et de la crise de légitimité dont souffrent les TPI ad hoc accusés d'être à l'origine d'une justice des vainqueurs. La faible place accordée aux victimes, sans doute favorisée par un système de common law réfractaire à toute implication de la victime dans le processus pénal, participe à cette perception de partialité générée par une politique de poursuite peu représentative des conflits en cours. Néanmoins, l'influence progressive du droit romano-germanique dans la procédure pénale de la CPI a introduit quelques améliorations toutefois insuffisantes pour pallier à la crise de confiance héritée des TPI. La décision du Procureur international de ne pas poursuivre (ou inaction) n'étant soumise à aucun contrôle ou à un contrôle balbutiant et face aux dérives constatées, la mise en place d'outils de contrôle et / ou contrepoids pourrait-elle permettre aux juridictions pénales internationales de lutter avec efficacité contre l'impunité et s'affranchir d'une emprise politique évidente: Des éléments de réponse pourront être soutenus dans une analyse actuelle et prospective de la Cour pénale internationale, et dans la nécessité d'une présence toujours plus assumée au sein des juridictions pénales internationales d'un droit romano-germanique dont le rôle processuel des victimes et ses représentants dans le déclenchement des poursuites contribuera à éclairer la conception de la stratégie de poursuite du Procureur international. / We will first assess the present state of the prosecution of international crimes, as well as that of the use made by prosecutors of the principle of opportunity, both on the international levels. This will allow us to underline the procedural weaknesses constraining the action of the Prosecutor, during the preliminary phase of the trial, as well as the drawbacks created in the work of ICC by the prosecution policy of the International Prosecutor. True enough, these imperfections play a major part in giving him the appearance of partiality, and contribute to the legitimacy crisis plaguing the ad hoc ICTs, which are often accused of bringing about a victor's justice. This appearance of partiality, also often created by the fact that the present prosecution policy ill-represents the on-going conflicts, is further strengthened by the small place which is given to the victims in front of the International Courts. This is because the international court system is first and foremost based on common law, which does not favour the intervention of the victims in the legal proceedings.Nevertheless it is possible to note that the growing influence of continental law on the criminal proceedings at the ICC has permitted the introduction of improvements, however insufficient they may be to end the crisis of confidence inherited from the ICTs. Thus, we can ask ourselves whether the lack or stammering of controls, set upon the positive or negative prosecution decision of the International Prosecutor, should not be remedied with a greater degree of checks and balances, therefore allowing the international criminal courts to work with greater efficency against impunity whilst, at the same time, setting themselves free from an obvious political hold. Answers can be found in a prospective analysis of the present workings of the ICC. This analysis will demonstrate the need for the ICC to draw a greater inspiration from continental law, in particular with regards to the role played by the victims and contribute to throw light on how the International Prosecutor builds his strategy.

"The establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in Rome in 1998 is a milestone for humanity and a watershed in the life of victims of ongoing violations or wars. The Preamble to the Rome Statute of the ICC acknowledges that 'during this century [20th century] millions of children, women and men have been victims of unimaginable atrocities that deeply shock the conscience of humanity'. This dissertation explores the development and state of victims' rights in international criminal law. ... The study consists of five chapters. Chapter one will provide the context in which the study is set. It oulines the basis and structure of the study. Chapter two endeavours to define some of the basic concepts central to the study: victim, witness, compensation, reparation, redress, restitution, etc. This chapter will give a brief overview of victims' rights in the domestic system. It will also analyse the right to an effective remedy in international law with specific focus on the UN human rights system and on regional systems. Chapter three will outline victims' rights before the ad hoc international criminal tribunals and hybrid courts. These tribunals and courts are the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), Special Court of Sierra Leone (SCSL), Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECC), and the Special Pannels for Serious Crimes in East Timor (SPSC). Chapter four is devoted [to] the ICC. It will focus on its provisions dealing with victims' rights and assess whether this mechanism makes effective allowance for victims to be heard and compensated. Chapter five will consist of a summary of the entire presentation and the conclusions drawn from the study. It will make some recommendations for the adequate protection of victims' rights." -- Introduction. / Prepared under the supervision of Dr. Raymond Koen at the Faculty of Law, University of the Western Cape / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2006. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM