The inter-relationship of cultural expressions is the basis of a model of cultural change (the cultural expression web) presented in this dissertation. The thesis and model are derived from formative case studies in developing nations of the Asia Pacific region. Cultural expressions, the 'physical' manifestation of culture, are often a 'product' for tourism. Many host communities trade cultural expressions for benefits that tourism can provide. As such, cultural expressions are a direct link between a host culture and the tourist. Modelling the change process in expressions is presented as a heuristic device as well as a prognostic tool for cultural impact assessment. The thesis proposes that cultural expressions are linked and that a change in one affects others. The magnitude of change to a cultural expression, and flow-on effect, depends on the significance of the cultural expression to the culture, the number of links and the strength of these links, determined by practice and its contribution to maintaining social structure and providing physical benefits to the individual and community. The dissertation documents thesis development from a personal construct, through analysis of formative case studies to identify conceptual categories, and formalisation of the model. The thesis and model are tested against cultural impact theory presented in the tourism literature and are found to be consistent or related. They are also tested against tourism related case studies from Indonesia and are found to explain reported changes to culture and cultural expressions. Methods to test the model empirically are presented.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND FOLKLORE Abstract This thesis focuses on folklore within intellectual property law and examines current and suggested means of its protection. Although the notion of traditional cultural expressions is relatively new for jurisprudence, it quickly becomes significant, partly due to its political connotations. The first part introduces four essential terms: intellectual property, folklore, indigenous peoples and public domain. Furthermore, it describes notions of indigenous customary law and domaine public payant. The second part focuses on the relation between intellectual property and folkore. It discusses its nature and various interests that are linked to it. The same part looks at folklore as a cultural heritage of humankind. It also outlines main problematic uses of fokloric works and illustrates them with numerous examples. In the end it mentions so called WIPO Fact-Finding Missions. The third part looks at foklore in the framework of standard intellectual property law. It is divided into three chapters, namely Copyright, Industrial Property Rights and Other means of protection. The fourth part is dedicated to sui generis law. It provides an overview of attempts to amend conventional system of intellectual property law in order to better suit the needs of folkore. It presents...

When studying the novel Les Années by the novelist Annie Ernaux we have chosen to have acloser look upon the translation of the novel to Swedish following the strategies of translationelaborated by Brynja Svane. These strategies are based on the study of cultural expressions. Ascultural expressions we have chosen those expressions which are typical for the world situationand for the daily life during this period of time, that is 70 between 1940 and 2008. We want tofind out whether these strategies can help the translator to convey the message of the novel. Thethree most often used strategies are addition, transfer with explanation and semantic adaption.Sometimes the translation needs to add words to dramatize the text in a way that is easily donein a few words in the source language. Finally, we find that using a lot of words sometimesmake the translated text a bit heavy and clumsy, which might hide and weaken the message ofthe novel

This dissertation asks how conceptions of race have informed popular cultural expressions in post-independence Morocco. Further, how have these expressions helped shape Moroccan modernity? What does an analysis of the history of the Gnawa in Morocco tell us about changes in Moroccan society, including the religious landscape, and the relation of these changes to globalization? This dissertation tracks the often contradictory paths that modernity has taken in Morocco through a focus on one racialized subculture, the Gnawa, ritual musicians originally from sub-Saharan Africa who have lived in Morocco for centuries without losing a certain African identity. The first part of the dissertation assesses Blackness in Morocco, considering Moroccan history in light of its relations across the Sahara desert. I examine cultural patterns of the Niger River region to which the Gnawa trace their origins, as well as crucial elements in the Moroccan past that involve racial formation. The second part of the dissertation considers how newcomers come to take on these new spiritual and musical identities, whether through a kind of musical transposition or an economic conversion. I argue that mass media have been central in Gnawa conversion narratives in the past, while more recent Gnawa identities have revolved around the consumption of commodities. The third section details my own conversion through a series of engagements with the Essaouira Festival of world music and Gnawa music in Morocco. I attended the festival as an informed tourist and also behind the scenes as an interested participant, and I found that the festival serves multiple purposes in Morocco's cultural economy. I conclude that Morocco's aesthetic history is deeply influenced by conceptions of race. These conceptions have in turn influenced commercial media expressions of post-independence Moroccan identities. Finally, since the opening of Moroccan society in the 1990s, the clearest expression of the future of Moroccan expressive and popular culture has been the rise of music festivals. / text

O patrimônio biocultural imaterial (PBI) é composto por três grandes grupos de recursos bioculturais imateriais (RBIs), a saber, recursos da diversidade biológica (biodiversidade), conhecimentos tradicionais (CTs) e expressões culturais tradicionais (ECTs). Há muito, o PBI dos países em desenvolvimento e de suas comunidades tradicionais vem sendo apropriado sistematicamente pelas instituições dos países industrializados, por meio da reivindicação de direitos de propriedade intelectual sobre produções intelectuais deles derivadas. Desde a década de 60, sem sucesso, os países em desenvolvimento vêm se empenhando em alcançar a adoção de regimes internacionais, apropriados à proteção dos RBIs. Com a entrada em vigor do Acordo sobre Aspectos dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual relacionados ao Comércio da Organização Mundial do Comércio (Acordo TRIPS), em 1995, os países em desenvolvimento se viram na situação de terem de conceder proteção legal a produções intelectuais derivadas de RBIs, ainda que estes tenham sido obtidos ilicitamente. Em contra-resposta, tais países se articulam em negociar regimes internacionais de proteção das diversas categorias de RBIs, no âmbito da Conferência das Partes da Convenção sobre Diversidade Biológica (CCDB), da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) e da Organização Mundial da Propriedade Intelectual (OMPI). As propostas negociadas nesses foros se assentam sobre o obsoleto regime de propriedade intelectual e são julgadas adequadas a proteger os RBIs, porquanto se mostram hábeis a reprimir sua apropriação indébita por terceiros não-autorizados. Contudo, os negociadores dos países em desenvolvimento ainda não atentaram que os RBIs não se confundem com as produções intelectuais geradas no seio da sociedade ocidental, pois contam com três dimensões peculiares, a saber, as dimensões humana, ambiental e cultural, além da dimensão imaterial. Partindo do imperativo de salvaguardar, simultaneamente, as múltiplas dimensões do PBI, o presente trabalho propõe um quadro conceitual de desenvolvimento sustentável, competente a desempenhar o papel de um tipo ideal, composto pelos elementos fundamentais que qualquer regime de proteção dos RBIs deve encerrar. A aplicação do quadro conceitual viabiliza a identificação das fraquezas e fortalezas das principais propostas de regimes internacionais em negociação/construção; permitiu ainda identificar as virtudes e fraquezas de mecanismos de proteção calcados em direitos de propriedade, direitos de quase-propriedade, regimes de responsabilidade e regras de pliability. Por fim, a aplicação do quadro conceitual de desenvolvimento sustentável ensejou a identificação de um arranjo legal e institucional apto a tutelar o PBI, de modo a promover, simultaneamente, a repressão de sua apropriação indébita (i), o uso amplo e facilitado de grande parte dos RBIs para fins produtivos (ii); a geração de recursos materiais em favor da conservação/restauração da biodiversidade e da melhoria da qualidade de vida das comunidades tradicionais (iii), e a proteção de alguns valores culturais centrais, conservados pelas comunidades tradicionais (iv). / Intangible biocultural heritage (IBH) is made up of three groups of intangible biocultural resources (IBRs), namely, biological resources (BR), traditional knowledge (TK) and traditional cultural expressions (TCEs). Historically, institutions based in industrialized countries have systematically misappropriated the IBH belonging to communities in developing countries by means of claiming Intellectual Property Rights over products derived. Since the 1960s, developing countries have unsuccessfully endeavored to reach international agreements suitable for protecting IBRs. After the Agreement on Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) came into effect in 1995, those countries have been obliged to grant legal protection to intellectual products derived from IBRs, even if those products resulted from acts of misappropriation. In response to this challenge, developing countries came together to negotiate international regimes to protect the different categories of IBRs at the Conference to the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP-CBD), before the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) as well as at the World Trade Organization (WTO). Their proposals, however, are rooted in the anachronistic intellectual property paradigm, ill-suited with respect to providing adequate tools to protect those resources. The negotiators representing the interests of developing countries have not realized yet that they should not treat IBRs in the same fashion as typical intellectual products originating from Western countries, provided IBRs are categorically distinct, featuring three particular dimensionshuman, environmental and culturalnot present in intellectual property as traditionally understood, in addition to the traditional intangible intellectual element. With the end of safeguarding the multiple dimension of IBH, the present work proposes na ideal sustainable development framework based upon the essential elements that any international regime devoted to protect IBH should embrace. The application of the sustainable development framework reveals the strengths and weaknesses of the most relevant proposals of international regimes currently under construction on the international level. Furthermore, it identifies the advantages and disadvantages of legal mechanisms based on property rights, quasi property rights, liability rules, and pliability rules. Finally, the application of this sustainable development framework outlines a concrete legal and institutional arrangement, capable of simultaneously (i) protecting IBRs against acts of misappropriation, (ii) fostering the wider and facilitated use of IBRs for productive purposes, (iii) generating economic resources in favor of the conservation/restoration of natural ecosystems and the improvement of the quality of life of local communities, (iv) as well as safeguarding certain core cultural values of traditional communities.

<p>This research work addresses the problem being faced by developing countries in the commercial exploitation of their traditional cultural expressions (TCEs) by third parties without giving due attribution to nor sharing benefits with the communities from which these TCEs originate. This problem stems from the inability of customary law systems which regulates life in such communities to adequately cater for the protection of these TCEs. The legal systems of the developing countries have also proven to be ineffective in the protection of TCEs from such misappropriation and unauthorized commercial exploitation. This mini-thesis examines how TCEs have been protected domestically through national legislation and internationally through treaties and proposes means by which they can be protected in a manner that would preserve them, while promoting the dissemination of those which can be shared without destroying their inherent nature. This mini-thesis thus explores avenues through which the protection of TCEs would contribute to economic and human development in developing countries.</p>

<p>This research work addresses the problem being faced by developing countries in the commercial exploitation of their traditional cultural expressions (TCEs) by third parties without giving due attribution to nor sharing benefits with the communities from which these TCEs originate. This problem stems from the inability of customary law systems which regulates life in such communities to adequately cater for the protection of these TCEs. The legal systems of the developing countries have also proven to be ineffective in the protection of TCEs from such misappropriation and unauthorized commercial exploitation. This mini-thesis examines how TCEs have been protected domestically through national legislation and internationally through treaties and proposes means by which they can be protected in a manner that would preserve them, while promoting the dissemination of those which can be shared without destroying their inherent nature. This mini-thesis thus explores avenues through which the protection of TCEs would contribute to economic and human development in developing countries.</p>

Magister Legum - LLM (Mercantile and Labour Law) / Traditional Knowledge (TK) has previously been considered a 'subject' in the public domain, unworthy of legal protection. However, the last few decades have witnessed increased discussions on the need to protect the knowledge of indigenous peoples for their economic sustenance, the conservation of biodiversity and modern scientific innovation. Questions remain as to how TK can best be protected through existing, adapted or sui generis legal frameworks. Based on an examination of the formal knowledge-protection mechanisms (i.e. the existing intellectual property system), this mini-thesis contends that these existing systems are inadequate for protecting TK. As a matter of fact, they serve as veritable platforms for incidences of biopiracy. It further argues that the many international initiatives designed to protect TK have so far failed owing to inherent shortcomings embedded in them. Furthermore, a comparative assessment of several national initiatives (in New Zealand, South Africa and Kenya) supports an understanding that several domestic efforts to protect TK have been rendered ineffective due to the insurmountable challenge of dealing with the international violations of local TK rights. It is therefore important that on-going international negotiations for the protection of TK, including the negotiations within the World Intellectual Property Organisation's Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC), do not adopt similar approaches to those employed in previous initiatives if TK must be efficiently and effectively protected. This mini-thesis concludes that indigenous peoples possess peculiar protection mechanisms for their TK within the ambit of their customary legal systems and that these indigenous mechanisms are the required anchors for effective global protections.

Magister Legum - LLM (Mercantile and Labour Law) / Traditional Knowledge (TK) has previously been considered a 'subject' in the public domain, unworthy of legal protection. However, the last few decades have witnessed increased discussions on the need to protect the knowledge of indigenous peoples for their economic sustenance, the conservation of biodiversity and modern scientific innovation. Questions remain as to how TK can best be protected through existing, adapted or sui generis legal frameworks. Based on an examination of the formal knowledge-protection mechanisms (i.e. the existing intellectual property system), this mini-thesis contends that these existing systems are inadequate for protecting TK. As a matter of fact, they serve as veritable platforms for incidences of biopiracy. It further argues that the many international initiatives designed to protect TK have so far failed owing to inherent shortcomings embedded in them. Furthermore, a comparative assessment of several national initiatives (in New Zealand, South Africa and Kenya) supports an understanding that several domestic efforts to protect TK have been rendered ineffective due to the insurmountable challenge of dealing with the international violations of local TK rights. It is therefore important that on-going international negotiations for the protection of TK, including the negotiations within the World Intellectual Property Organisation's Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC), do not adopt similar approaches to those employed in previous initiatives if TK must be efficiently and effectively protected. This mini-thesis concludes that indigenous peoples possess peculiar protection mechanisms for their TK within the ambit of their customary legal systems and that these indigenous mechanisms are the required anchors for effective global protections.

O patrimônio biocultural imaterial (PBI) é composto por três grandes grupos de recursos bioculturais imateriais (RBIs), a saber, recursos da diversidade biológica (biodiversidade), conhecimentos tradicionais (CTs) e expressões culturais tradicionais (ECTs). Há muito, o PBI dos países em desenvolvimento e de suas comunidades tradicionais vem sendo apropriado sistematicamente pelas instituições dos países industrializados, por meio da reivindicação de direitos de propriedade intelectual sobre produções intelectuais deles derivadas. Desde a década de 60, sem sucesso, os países em desenvolvimento vêm se empenhando em alcançar a adoção de regimes internacionais, apropriados à proteção dos RBIs. Com a entrada em vigor do Acordo sobre Aspectos dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual relacionados ao Comércio da Organização Mundial do Comércio (Acordo TRIPS), em 1995, os países em desenvolvimento se viram na situação de terem de conceder proteção legal a produções intelectuais derivadas de RBIs, ainda que estes tenham sido obtidos ilicitamente. Em contra-resposta, tais países se articulam em negociar regimes internacionais de proteção das diversas categorias de RBIs, no âmbito da Conferência das Partes da Convenção sobre Diversidade Biológica (CCDB), da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) e da Organização Mundial da Propriedade Intelectual (OMPI). As propostas negociadas nesses foros se assentam sobre o obsoleto regime de propriedade intelectual e são julgadas adequadas a proteger os RBIs, porquanto se mostram hábeis a reprimir sua apropriação indébita por terceiros não-autorizados. Contudo, os negociadores dos países em desenvolvimento ainda não atentaram que os RBIs não se confundem com as produções intelectuais geradas no seio da sociedade ocidental, pois contam com três dimensões peculiares, a saber, as dimensões humana, ambiental e cultural, além da dimensão imaterial. Partindo do imperativo de salvaguardar, simultaneamente, as múltiplas dimensões do PBI, o presente trabalho propõe um quadro conceitual de desenvolvimento sustentável, competente a desempenhar o papel de um tipo ideal, composto pelos elementos fundamentais que qualquer regime de proteção dos RBIs deve encerrar. A aplicação do quadro conceitual viabiliza a identificação das fraquezas e fortalezas das principais propostas de regimes internacionais em negociação/construção; permitiu ainda identificar as virtudes e fraquezas de mecanismos de proteção calcados em direitos de propriedade, direitos de quase-propriedade, regimes de responsabilidade e regras de pliability. Por fim, a aplicação do quadro conceitual de desenvolvimento sustentável ensejou a identificação de um arranjo legal e institucional apto a tutelar o PBI, de modo a promover, simultaneamente, a repressão de sua apropriação indébita (i), o uso amplo e facilitado de grande parte dos RBIs para fins produtivos (ii); a geração de recursos materiais em favor da conservação/restauração da biodiversidade e da melhoria da qualidade de vida das comunidades tradicionais (iii), e a proteção de alguns valores culturais centrais, conservados pelas comunidades tradicionais (iv). / Intangible biocultural heritage (IBH) is made up of three groups of intangible biocultural resources (IBRs), namely, biological resources (BR), traditional knowledge (TK) and traditional cultural expressions (TCEs). Historically, institutions based in industrialized countries have systematically misappropriated the IBH belonging to communities in developing countries by means of claiming Intellectual Property Rights over products derived. Since the 1960s, developing countries have unsuccessfully endeavored to reach international agreements suitable for protecting IBRs. After the Agreement on Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) came into effect in 1995, those countries have been obliged to grant legal protection to intellectual products derived from IBRs, even if those products resulted from acts of misappropriation. In response to this challenge, developing countries came together to negotiate international regimes to protect the different categories of IBRs at the Conference to the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP-CBD), before the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) as well as at the World Trade Organization (WTO). Their proposals, however, are rooted in the anachronistic intellectual property paradigm, ill-suited with respect to providing adequate tools to protect those resources. The negotiators representing the interests of developing countries have not realized yet that they should not treat IBRs in the same fashion as typical intellectual products originating from Western countries, provided IBRs are categorically distinct, featuring three particular dimensionshuman, environmental and culturalnot present in intellectual property as traditionally understood, in addition to the traditional intangible intellectual element. With the end of safeguarding the multiple dimension of IBH, the present work proposes na ideal sustainable development framework based upon the essential elements that any international regime devoted to protect IBH should embrace. The application of the sustainable development framework reveals the strengths and weaknesses of the most relevant proposals of international regimes currently under construction on the international level. Furthermore, it identifies the advantages and disadvantages of legal mechanisms based on property rights, quasi property rights, liability rules, and pliability rules. Finally, the application of this sustainable development framework outlines a concrete legal and institutional arrangement, capable of simultaneously (i) protecting IBRs against acts of misappropriation, (ii) fostering the wider and facilitated use of IBRs for productive purposes, (iii) generating economic resources in favor of the conservation/restoration of natural ecosystems and the improvement of the quality of life of local communities, (iv) as well as safeguarding certain core cultural values of traditional communities.