Bakgrund:Sexuella övergrepp mot barn ger många negativa hälsomässiga konsekvenser. En stor andelav de barn som utsatts för sexuella övergrepp berättar inte om det för någon och forskningvisar att de i genomsnitt är tysta om övergreppen i genomsnitt 17,2 år. Orsakerna till att barn berättar om att de är utsatta för sexuella övergrepp är att de känner ett behov av att berätta om det för att den psykiska påfrestningen är så stor och för att de vill förhindra övergrepp. De berättar också om sexuella övergrepp när de får möjligheten genom kunskap och tillitsfulla relationer där de blir tillfrågade. Syfte:Syftet med denna litteraturöversikt är att redogöra för vad som får barn att berätta om att de är utsatta för sexuella övergrepp. Metod:Metoden i denna studie är en litteraturöversikt. Det gjorde systematiska litteratursökningars om resulterade i åtta artiklar som svarade mot studiens syfte. Artiklarna som användes till resultatet i studien kvalitetsgranskades och sammanställdes i teman och subteman. Resultat:I resultatet framkom två teman och fem subteman. De teman som togs fram var ‘’behov av att berätta’’ och ‘’möjlighet att berätta’’. Subteman var ‘’psykisk påfrestning att hålla hemligheten’’, ‘’förhindra övergrepp’’, ‘’barns kunskap om sexuella övergrepp’’, ‘’tillitsfulla relationer’’ och ‘’att bli tillfrågad’’. Konklusion:Barn behöver känna ett behov av att berätta och uppleva en möjlighet att berätta för att kunna berätta om sexuella övergrepp. / Background:Child sexual abuse lead to a range of negative health consequences. A large amount of those who are subject to abuse don’t tell anyone about it, and research indicates that in average they stay silent for 17,2 years. The reasons why children tell about sexual abuse is that they feel the need to because of the intolerable psychological burden and a strong wish to prevent further abuse. They also talk about abuse when they are given the opportunity through knowledge of child sexual abuse and when asked about it in trusting relationships. Aim:The aim of the study is to describe what makes children say that they are exposed to sexual abuse. Method:The method in this study is a literature review. Systematic literature searches were done that resulted in eight articles that corresponded to the purpose of the study. The articles used fort he results of the study were quality reviewed and compiled into themes and sub-themes. Results:The results revealed two themes and five sub-themes. The themes that were developed were"need to tell" and "opportunity to tell". Subthemes were "mental strain to keep secret","prevent abuse", "children's knowledge of sexual abuse", "trusting relationships" and "to be asked". Conclusion:Children have to feel the need to tell and experience an opportunity to tell in order to be able to talk about sexual abuse.

For the healthcare provider, disclosing a pediatric patient's difficult diagnosis in the form of an acute or chronic condition to the parents is a challenging task. Healthcare providers often feel unprepared when relaying the news of such diagnosis, and the parents feel equally unprepared upon receiving it (Pririe, 2012). This systematic literature review examined the various communication techniques used in the past, and the techniques' effectiveness in increasing parental satisfaction when first learning of the child's diagnosis. A scarce number of studies related to the most effective techniques were found in the literature, and even fewer were found that evaluated the techniques presented. Overall, three of the most commonly occurring communication themes identified from the studies were: 1) Parents desired privacy during the disclosure and wanted a support system present (mostly a spouse); 2) The diagnosis must be given as soon as the healthcare provider suspected it, and; 3) The healthcare provider must emphasize the positive characteristics of the pediatric patient, as well as the patient's future with the diagnosis. Both parents and providers agreed that further research is needed to identify effective communication techniques used during disclosure. The aim of the research should be to identify the most effective means of communication to increase parental satisfaction. Furthermore, all healthcare providers need collaborative and interdisciplinary training in delivering a difficult diagnosis to increase parental satisfaction.

This study investigated the development of trust between strangers interacting via avatars in virtual worlds. The first part of the study analyzed perceived trustworthiness based on the visual appearance of avatars; the second part makes observations of two strangers self-disclosing information via avatars in a virtual world; the third part analyzed an experimental situation of two individuals interacting via avatars, where avatar appearance was changed and participants were recruited based on their experience with interacting with others via avatars. Findings showed that perceived trustworthiness does vary based on the visual appearance of the avatar. A positive relationship was found for self-disclosure and experience, in that those who have previously chosen to participate in a virtual world were more likely to share more detailed information about themselves. Non-significant differences in self-disclosure were found for avatar appearance; however, experience in using virtual worlds was significantly different for the willingness to share information before engaging in a task: experienced participants shared more information than inexperienced participants. This suggests that self-disclosure might be influenced by appearance at the point of formation in that the experienced are willing to overlook the avatar, and less so when there are other sources of information to base trust-behavior on (Altman & Taylor, 1973; Nowak & Rauh, 2006). Recommendations were made for modifications for similar experiments trying to validate an objective measure of trust, and for continued research in the development of trust between strangers interacting via avatars.

Limited involvement of youth with developmental disabilities (DD) in mentoring programs has resulted in limited knowledge about the quality and impact of these relationships. The self-disclosure process has been identified as one factor impacting relationship development (Reis & Shaver, 1988). We proposed a theoretical model to examine the role of the self-disclosure process as a mechanism in peer mentoring relationship development for transition-age youth with DD by determining if self-disclosure occurred, the type of information shared, how peer mentors responded, and if the process differed by perceived relationship quality. This retrospective, observational study purposefully selected nine peer mentoring dyads from a problem-solving intervention with a peer mentoring component to examine relationships judged by the researchers, peer mentors, and peer mentor supporters to be of variable quality (strong, moderate, weak), including 9 youth and 5 peer mentors with DD. Peer mentoring included 8 structured calls each with specific objectives. Phone call recordings were coded and dyads were grouped by perceived quality to determine how the self-disclosure process differed by relationship quality. The findings indicated self-disclosure occurred in each relationship at high rates (59%) and peer mentors responded to almost all self-disclosures (98%). A higher quantity of self-disclosure and more frequent disclosure of emotions were found in relationships of higher quality. Peer mentors in higher quality relationships more frequently responded to self-disclosure with advice or their own self-disclosure. Implications of findings and use of the self-disclosure process as a mechanism for promoting high quality peer mentoring relationships are discussed.

This dissertation is a collection of essays on principal-agent contracts under asymmetry of information. The papers investigate how the possibility of acquiring information influences contracts. The first essay analyzes the contract between a principal and an agent, when the principal can conduct an audit of the agent's cost of production. The principal can choose an audit policy after output is produced - but he cannot commit to an audit policy at the beginning. The probability of audit is a best reply to the agent's probability of misreporting given the contract. The interaction between the contract, the audit strategy and the reporting strategy is analyzed. The main result obtained is that, when the cost of production is high the optimal contract requires the agent to produce an amount greater than the output under full information. The principal audits randomly and truthful cost announcements cannot be induced with certainty. It is also shown that the principal audits with a higher probability when he cannot commit as compared to when he can. The second essay considers an effort monitoring problem. It analyzes the contract the principal will offer an agent when the monitoring strategy cannot be committed to. Given the contract, the monitoring strategy is a best reply to the agent's effort strategy. The interaction between the contract, the monitoring strategy and the effort strategy is analyzed. The source of the principal's gain from monitoring is explained. It is shown that the wage payments to the agent may be decreasing in the outcome of the agent's effort. The third essay endogenizes the amount of information the agent will rely on when deciding whether or not to accept the contract. By incurring an observation cost, the agent can observe the state of nature after the contract is offered. If he does so he will be able to turn it down whenever his payoff is negative. It is shown that the principal will always find it in his best interest to offer a contract such that the agent has no incentive to use his ability to observe the state of nature. Furthermore. an increase in the cost of observation is very valuable to the principal. The paper also looks at the case in which the principal is allowed to put several agents in competition for the contract. It is shown that, though the principal has monopoly power and can force the single agent to his reservation utility, having several agents compete for the contract increases the principal's payoff. / Ph. D.

This study critically analyzes the mandatory financial disclosure requirements imposed on extractive companies operating in Liberia under the Liberia Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (LEITI) and examines their implications on transparency, accountability, and sustainability in the extractive sector. Firstly, the study utilizes a qualitative approach and conducts interviews with stakeholders involved in or affected by the extractive sector in Liberia. The study reveals that mandatory financial disclosure under the LEITI has contributed to increased transparency, trust, compliance, and revenue generation in the extractive sector. However, the implementation of these requirements has encountered challenges in reducing corruption, addressing environmental and social issues, and ensuring participation and enforcement. Despite these challenges, the LEITI has proven to be more effective, efficient, and sustainable compared to other transparency initiatives in the extractive sector, such as the Publish What You Pay (PWYP) Coalition Liberia. Through the LEITI implementation, the study identifies best practices and lessons learned, including the importance of mandatory financial disclosure, multi-stakeholder engagement , a broad scope of reporting, and regional and global cooperation. Nevertheless, the study concludes that mandatory financial disclosure alone is insufficient to improve the performance and accountability of extractive companies in Liberia. Transparency initiatives like the LEITI should address both technical and political aspects of natural resource governance, while also considering the social and environmental impacts of extractive activities. In light of these findings, the study recommends that stakeholders in the extractive sector enhance the institutional and operational aspects of the LEITI. These recommendations encompass strengthening the legal and regulatory framework, empowering and involving civil society, addressing structural inequalities and power imbalances, and establishing effective oversight and enforcement mechanisms.

Sustainability reports should provide a balanced picture of a company’s sustainability aspects, but because of its voluntary nature, overly positive aspects are often presented (Holder-Webb et al., 2009; Lougee & Wallace, 2008). Though, negative disclosure may also be released as it could improve transparency, enhance trust, and decrease the risk of green or whitewashing tendencies (Hahn & Lüfs, 2014, Hahn & Reimsbach, 2013). However, when disclosing negative information, it is important for companies to legitimize the negative aspects, as the negative information could otherwise harm the company. As a result of this, different legitimacy strategies are used by companies when disclosing negative information (Hahn et al., 2021). Based on this, this thesis explores and analyses strategies for disclosing negative sustainability information. In particular, the study examines companies within the fast fashion industry, a heavily debated sector in regard to sustainability, which indicates that the companies within the business should try to legitimize themselves.    To fulfil the purpose of this study the choice was made to conduct a content analysis and semi-structured interviews, where four fast fashion companies’ (H&M, SHEIN, Boohoo and American Eagle) sustainability reports were analysed to identify negative sustainability disclosure and assess how the companies’ tried to legitimize these negative aspects. Later, the disclosure strategies’ impacts on stakeholders were examined through 10 semi-structured interviews with concerned stakeholders. The results show that the companies subject to research did use the strategies corrective action, marginalization, abstraction, and preventive action to legitimize negative sustainability issues. The strategies were often not effective in enhancing legitimacy mainly because of too vague measures, but also because of the disbelief from stakeholders regarding the industry’s will and ability to change. However, the findings also indicated that the negative disclosure could enhance a bit of legitimacy as it signalled transparency and accountability, which is preferred compared to denial or compliance.    The study’s implications are important for scholars and practitioners. The theoretical contributions were added to the research field of negative disclosure and legitimacy strategies, and the implications are important for managers working within the fast fashion industry as well. This is because the results of this study will develop their knowledge of how certain negative disclosures strategies can play a both positive and negative role in enhancing the legitimacy towards stakeholders.

Extant research has revealed that the counselor’s response to the clients’ disclosure of child sexual abuse experiences have a significant impact on their wellbeing, continuation in therapy, and progress in treatment. Despite the growing body of literature on the need for more sensitive and professional responses to child sexual abuse disclosure, clients continue to report negative responses and experiences with counseling professionals. To date, few studies have investigated the counselor’s affective responses to a client who discloses a child sexual abuse history. The purpose of this study was to investigate the range of counselor’s affective responses when confronted with the topic of child sexual abuse and to investigate what factors influenced these reactions. Results of the current study indicated that counselors with a personal history with CSA scored similarly to those with no CSA history on the Affective Responses to Child Sexual Abuse Scale (ARCSAS). However, there was a statistically significant difference in affective responses by degree and CSA history. Counselors with a personal history of CSA and who held a master’s degree responded with greater sensitivity to the topic of CSA than those with a doctoral degree and no personal experience with child sexual abuse. Results of the study indicated that type of CSA training was not a statistically significant factor in affective responses to CSA; however, the amount of CSA training and increased experience with CSA clients did have a positive influence on counselors’ affective responses to CSA. The results of the factor analysis indicated that the ARCSAS was a moderate measure of counselor affective responses with a twoactor structure. The results of the study suggested that measuring affective responses to child sexual abuse is a complex and multidimensional construct with many variances. In addition, the findings of the study support the importance of counselors and counselorsin- training to be prepared prior to their first exposure to CSA clients to illicit more positive responses to CSA. Thus, the results of this study support the need for more child sexual abuse training and experience in order to deflect any negative responses on clients who disclose child sexual abuse.

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