O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar as propriedades físico-químicas de diferentes matérias-primas de talidomida visando à identificação de parâmetros críticos a serem observados para garantir a aquisição de insumo com qualidade farmacêutica. Sete amostras foram caracterizadas a partir de estudos tecnológicos, espectroscópicos, morfológicos, térmicos e cristalográficos, sendo avaliadas frente a processos de dissolução e compactação. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a inexistência de homogeneidade entre as matérias-primas analisadas, apresentando diferenças em relação à constituição cristalina e morfológica, comportamento térmico, velocidade de dissolução intrínseca e comportamento frente à compactação. Foi observada e quantificada a presença de fases polimórficas a e b e materiais semicristalinos. A amostra T5 demonstrou desfavoráveis propriedades tecnológicas, gerando indicativos de problemas relativos à processabilidade do fármaco em medicamento, ao contrário de T1. A análise térmica forneceu indícios de transição sólido-sólido entre fases polimórficas de fármaco, provavelmente relacionada a propriedades químico-mecânicas das amostras associadas à inserção de calor. Amostras semicristalinas apresentaram maior velocidade de dissolução intrínseca, principalmente associada ao polimorfo b, representando, possivelmente, um desvio de qualidade em processos sintéticos. Estudos preliminares indicaram que a amostra T1 exibiu melhor compactabilidade que T5. Devido a sua pureza cristalográfica e propriedades tecnológicas, a amostra T1 se mostrou a mais indicada ao desenvolvimento de comprimidos de talidomida. / The objective of this work was to evaluate physicochemical properties of different thalidomide raw material in order to identify critical parameters to assure the acquisition of a product with pharmaceutical quality. Seven samples were characterized by technological, spectroscopic, morphological, thermal and crystallographic approaches. Dissolution tests and degree of compaction were used to evaluate the samples. The results demonstrated raw materials with lack of homogeneity and differences related to crystal and morphological constitution, thermal behavior, intrinsic dissolution rate and compaction behavior. Polymorphic forms a and b and semicrystalline materials were observed and quantified. In contrast to T1, the sample T5 presented unfavorable technological properties generating indicatives of relative problems impairing the tablets manufacturing process. Thermal analysis indicated solid-solid transition between polymorphic phases probably related to chemical-mechanical properties of the samples associated with heating. Semicrystalline materials presented higher intrinsic dissolution rate than other samples, mainly related to the polymorph b, possibly representing quality deviation associated with synthetic process. Early studies indicated better compactability of sample T1 than T5. Due its crystallographic purity and technological properties, it is suggested that T1 is the sample choice to be used during the development of a pharmaceutical solid oral dosage form containing thalidomide.

Os testes de dissolução têm surgido no campo farmacêutico como uma ferramenta muito importante para caracterizar o desempenho de um medicamento. O ritonavir (ABT-538) é um inibidor peptidomimético tanto do HIV-1 quanto do HIV-2, sendo aprovado pelo FDA em 1996. Embora utilizado por quase dez anos, em todo o mundo, o ritonavir (cápsula mole) não está incluído em nenhuma farmacopéia ou código oficial e somente o FDA sugere uma condição para o teste de dissolução. Sendo um fármaco pouco solúvel e com uma biodisponibilidade oral em torno de 70%, o ritonavir é um candidato ao desenvolvimento de um método de dissolução baseado em uma correlação in vitro-in vivo (CIVIV). Neste trabalho, um ensaio de dissolução para ritonavir na forma farmacêutica cápsula foi desenvolvido e validado de acordo com o guia proposto pelo Fórum Farmacopéico. Diversas condições foram avaliadas, tais como, composição do meio, pH, concentração de surfactante e velocidade de agitação. O método foi desenvolvido utilizando o mesmo lote de Norvir® usado no estudo de bioequivalência e os dados in vivo foram utilizados para selecionar as melhores condições para o ensaio de dissolução, baseado em uma CIVIV. Um método seletivo por HPLC também foi desenvolvido. Para esta formulação, as melhores condições encontradas foram: equipamento USP 2, 900 ml de meio de dissolução contendo H2O com 0,7% de lauril sulfato de sódio a uma velocidade de agitação de 25 rpm. Após plotar a percentagem absorvida versus a percentagem dissolvida do fármaco, obtida através das condições selecionadas, uma boa correlação linear foi obtida (r= 0,997). O método de dissolução foi validado utilizando a CLAE e UV derivada. Desta forma, as especificações do teste de dissolução baseadas em uma CIVIV podem ser utilizadas como um método de controle de qualidade para avaliar o perfil de dissolução de cápsulas de ritonavir. / Dissolution testing has emerged in the pharmaceutical field as a very important tool to characterize drug product performance. Ritonavir (ABT-538) is a peptidomimetic inhibitor of both HIV-1 and HIV-2. It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1996. Although being used for almost ten years all over the world, ritonavir soft gel capsules is not included in any pharmacopoeia or official code and only FDA has a suggestion for dissolution test condition. Being a poorly soluble drug with an oral bioavailability around 70%, it is candidate for the development of a dissolution method based on in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC). In the present work, a dissolution test for ritonavir soft gel capsules was developed and validated according to the guidelines proposed by the Pharmacopeial Forum. Several conditions such as medium composition, pH, surfactant concentration and rotation speed were evaluated. The method was carried out using the same lot of Norvir® used in a bioequivalence study and the in vivo data was used to select the best dissolution test conditions based on IVIVC. Also a selective HPLC was developed. For this formulation, the best dissolution conditions were achieved using USP Apparatus 2, 900 ml of medium containing water with 0.7% (w/v) of sodium lauryl sulfate at a rotation speed of 25 rpm. After plotting the percentage of drug absorbed versus the percentage of drug dissolved under the conditions described above a very good linear correlation was obtained (r = 0.997). The dissolution test was validated using both HPLC and UV derivate assay methods. Considering the results, the proposed conditions established here based on an IVIVC could be used as a quality control to evaluate the dissolution profile of ritonavir soft gel capsules.

O Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) é uma planta que pertence à família Asteraceae, é originário das montanhas dos Andes e no Brasil seu cultivo iniciou-se em 1991. Possui carboidratos solúveis tais como frutose, glicose, sacarose e frutooligossacarídeos (FOS), sendo que os FOS não podem ser metabolizados pelo trato digestivo humano, tendo dessa forma atividade prebiótica. Este trabalho visou estudar o efeito do branqueamento no yacon e posterior secagem mediante ar quente. As raízes foram limpas e selecionadas considerando a ausência de injúrias visuais e infecções. A seguir foram descascadas e cortadas em forma de rodelas (espessuras de 1,75 ± 0,35 mm) e cubos (1,00 ± 0,01cm3). Foi verificada a ocorrência da solubilização dos açúcares durante o branqueamento, onde foram avaliadas as perdas de inulina, glicose e frutose em diferentes condições de tempo e temperatura. Foi observada a maior solubilização nas amostras em rodelas que em cubos na maioria dos tratamentos estudados. O teste de Tukey indicou que no branqueamento do yacon em forma de rodelas e cubos, o tempo, a temperatura e a interação entre eles foi significativa na solubilização dos açúcares, exceto na frutose (nas amostras em rodelas) e na inulina (nas amostras em cubos) onde somente foi significativo o tempo e a temperatura. Os resultados obtidos da superfície de resposta permitiram obter modelos estatísticos para estimar a perda de açúcares no branqueamento das amostras em rodelas, estimando as condições de maior solubilização. Devido a essas perdas, estudou-se o branqueamento a vapor em amostras em rodelas, que foram colocadas dentro de uma autoclave gerando vapor a 100oC nos tempos de 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 e 10 minutos, sendo a melhor condição a 4 minutos, onde foi possível reduzir a atividade enzimática da PER e PPO em 84,6% e 83,7%, correspondendo a perdas de inulina, glicose e frutose de 30,6, 39,4 e 15,8% respectivamente. A seguir foi realizada a secagem nas amostras de yacon, nas temperaturas de 50, 60 e 70°C por 5 horas e 30 minutos sem e com branqueamento, onde verificou-se o efeito do pré-tratamento e da temperatura sobre a redução da umidade e da atividade de água, revelando que o menor tempo de secagem foi obtido a 70°C em amostras com branqueamento. Também foi observado que após 5 horas de secagem a concentração de inulina diminuiu, enquanto que as concentrações de glicose e frutose aumentaram, sendo que os teores desses componentes no final da secagem não diferiram com a temperatura, tanto nas amostras que sofreram ou não branqueamento. No entanto, houve conversão dos FOS em açúcares redutores. O aumento na concentração dos açúcares redutores pode ser devido à presença de atividade enzimática da inulinase. / Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) is a plant belonging to the Asteraceae family and originated in the Andes Mountains, having been cultivated in Brazil since 1991. It contains soluble carbohydrates such as fructose, glucose, sucrose and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), the latter not being metabolized in the human digestive tract and thus presenting prebiotic activity. This work aimed to study the effect of blanching and subsequent hot air drying on yacon. The roots were cleaned and selected considering the absence of visual injury and infections. They were then peeled and cut into slices (1.75 ± 0.35 mm thick) and cubes (1.00 ± 0.01cm2). The sugars were shown to dissolve during blanching, and the losses of inulin, glucose and fructose were determined under different conditions of time and temperature. For the majority of conditions studied, greater dissolution was observed with the slices than with the cubes. Tukey's test indicated that both the time and the temperature and the interaction between them were significant with respect to the dissolution of sugars in the blanching of yacon in the form of both slices and cubes, with the exception of fructose (for the sliced samples) and inulin (for the samples in cubes), where only the time and temperature were significant. The results obtained from the response surface allowed for the production of statistical models to estimate the loss of sugars during blanching for the samples in slices, estimating the conditions for greatest dissolution. Due to these losses, steam blanching of the slices was studied, placing the slices inside an autoclave generating steam at 100ºC for times of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 minutes, the best condition being that of 4 minutes where it was possible to reduce the PER and PPO activities by 84.6% and 83.7%, respectively, with losses of inulin, glucose and fructose of 30.6, 39.4 and 15.8%, respectively. Drying of the yacon samples at temperatures of 50, 60 and 70ºC for 5 hours and 30 minutes, with and without blanching, was then carried out, verifying the effect of the pre-treatment and of the drying temperature on the reduction in moisture content and water activity. The shortest drying time was obtained at 70ºC with blanched samples. It was also observed that after 5 hours of drying the concentration of inulin decreased, whereas the concetrations of glucose and fructose increased, the contents of these components at the end of the drying period not varying according to the drying temperature, for either the blanched or non-blanched samples. Thus the FOS were converted into reducing sugars, and the increase in reducing sugars could have been due to the presence of inulinase activity.

abstract: Chemical and physical interactions of flowing ice and rock have inexorably shaped planetary surfaces. Weathering in glacial environments is a significant link in biogeochemical cycles – carbon and strontium – on Earth, and may have once played an important role in altering Mars’ surface. Despite growing recognition of the importance of low-temperature chemical weathering, these processes are still not well understood. Debris-coated glaciers are also present on Mars, emphasizing the need to study ice-related processes in the evolution of planetary surfaces. During Earth’s history, subglacial environments are thought to have sheltered communities of microorganisms from extreme climate variations. On Amazonian Mars, glaciers such as lobate debris aprons (LDA) could have hosted chemolithotrophic communities, making Mars’ present glaciers candidates for life preservation. This study characterizes glacial processes on both Earth and Mars. Chemical weathering at Robertson Glacier, a small alpine glacier in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, is examined with a multidisciplinary approach. The relative proportions of differing dissolution reactions at various stages in the glacial system are empirically determined using aqueous geochemistry. Synthesis of laboratory and orbital thermal infrared spectroscopy allows identification of dissolution rinds on hand samples and characterization of carbonate dissolution signals at orbital scales, while chemical and morphological evidence for thin, discontinuous weathering rinds at microscales are evident from electron microscopy. Subglacial dissolution rates are found to outpace those of the proglacial till plain; biologically-mediated pyrite oxidation drives the bulk of this acidic weathering. Second, the area-elevation relationship, or hypsometry, of LDA in the midlatitudes of Mars is characterized. These glaciers are believed to have formed ~500 Ma during a climate excursion. Hypsometric measurements of these debris-covered glaciers enable insight into past flow regimes and drive predictions about past climate scenarios. The LDA in this study fall into three major groups, strongly dependent on basal elevation, implying regional and climatic controls on ice formation and flow. I show that biologically-mediated mineral reactions drive high subglacial dissolution rates, such that variations within the valley can be detected with remote sensing techniques. In future work, these insights can be applied to examining Mars’ glacial regions for signs of chemical alteration and biosignatures. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2015

abstract: Palladium metal in its various forms has been heavily studied for many catalytic, hydrogen storage and sensing applications and as an electrocatalyst in fuel cells. A short review on various applications of palladium and the mechanism of Pd nanoparticles synthesis will be discussed in chapter 1. Size dependent properties of various metal nanoparticles and a thermodynamic theory proposed by Plieth to predict size dependent redox properties of metal nanoparticles will also be discussed in chapter 1. To evaluate size dependent stability of metal nanoparticles using electrochemical techniques in aqueous media, a synthetic route was designed to produce water soluble Pd nanoparticles. Also, a purification technique was developed to obtain monodisperse metal nanoparticles to study size dependent stability using electrochemical methods. Chapter 2 will describe in detail the synthesis, characterization and size dependent anodic dissolution studies of water soluble palladium nanoparticles. The cost associated with using expensive metal catalysts can further decreased by using the underpotential deposition (UPD) technique, in which one metal is electrodeposited in monolayer or submonolayer form on a different metal substrate. Electrochemically, this process can be detected by the presence of a deposition peak positive to the bulk deposition potential in a cyclic voltammetry (CV) experiment. The difference between the bulk deposition potential and underpotential deposition peak (i.e. the UPD shift), which is a measure of the energetics of the monolayer deposition step, depends on the work function difference between the metal pairs. Chapter 3 will explore how metal nanoparticles of different sizes will change the energetics of the UPD phenomenon, using the UPD of Cu on palladium nanoparticles as an example. It will be shown that the UPD shift depends on the size of the nanoparticle substrate in a way that is understandable based on the Plieth model. High electrocatalytic activity of palladium towards ethanol oxidation in an alkaline medium makes it an ideal candidate for the anode electrocatalyst in direct ethanol based fuel cells (DEFCs). Chapter 4 will explore the poisoning of the catalytic activity of palladium in the presence of halide impurities, often used in synthesis of palladium nanoparticles as precursors or shape directing agents. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Chemistry 2016

Alkali-soluble resins (ASRs) were prepared by (i) solution and (ii) emulsion polymerization. All ASRs were synthesized with number-average molar masses < 20,000 g mol-1 and all had 15 wt% methacrylic acid 5 wt% styrene, the remaining 80 wt% was composed of either methyl methacrylate or a combination of methyl methacrylate and ethyl acrylate. All emulsion ASRs were made to 20% solids, with volume-average particle diameters (dv) in the region 30 – 50 nm, with a glass transition temperature of 80 – 120 °C. Emulsion polymerization was the preferred route for ASR synthesis, to allow further studies on their dissolution behaviour. Before their use as colloidal stabilizers, the dissolution behaviour of the ASRs needed to beinvestigated e.g. effect of temperature, molar mass, and composition. Particle size and absorbance measurements were taken during dissolution of ASRs to achieve 100%neutralization and these were shown to have two stages, an apparent particle swelling (whichwas rapid), and a slower, decrease in particle size as water-soluble polymeric material wasdiffusing out of the ASR particles. From this, further interpretation allowed for calculating the diffusion coefficient of the ASR polymer using the Stokes-Einstein equation. Time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) was employed to enhance understanding of what is occurring in the ASR particles, and in the aqueous, continuous phase. The final aspect of this project was to use the ASRs prepared as colloidal stabilizers in emulsion polymerizations of butyl acrylate (BA) and butyl methacrylate (BMA) using varying levels and also the effect of adding additional surfactant. The results show that the effect of ASR molar mass, the concentration of stabilizer, and also the impact of the EA-containing ASR greatly influence stability, whereby lower ASR molar mass, higher levels of stabilizer and including EA greatly benefit colloidal stability in PBA latexes. In PBMA latexes, a similar trend was also observed, but, the presence of ethyl acrylate (EA) in the ASR backbone has a detrimental effect on the colloidal stability, caused by the inability of grafting to occur between the ASR and PBMA.

Fármacos pouco solúveis tendem a possuir baixa biodisponibilidade. Diversos métodos têm sido estudados para promover o aumento da solubilidade de fármacos pouco solúveis. As dispersões sólidas têm sido pesquisadas como uma estratégia de aumentar a solubilidade e, portanto a biodisponibilidade de fármacos pouco solúveis em água, entretanto, os mecanismos pelos quais ocorre o aumento da solubilidade desses fármacos ainda não foram completamente elucidados e parecem variar da combinação do fármaco e do polímero, bem como do método de obtenção empregado. No presente estudo, utilizaram-se técnicas de caracterização do estado sólido, baseadas na interação da energia térmica e eletromagnética radiante com a matéria. Foi detectado que as interações que ocorrem entre a hidroclorotiazida e a polivinilpirrolidona se devem a ligações de hidrogênio que mantêm o fármaco disperso na matriz amorfa do polímero provocando um aumento da solubilidade em água. / Poorly water-soluble drug frequently has low bioavailability. Solid dispersions have been used to improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly watersoluble drugs. However, the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon have not been show yet. In this study solid dispersions with hydrochlorothiazide and polyvinylpyrrolidone was prepared by evaporation method and characterized by dissolution test, differential scanning calorimetry and powder X Ray diffraction, in order to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the water solubility improve of drug. Our results show the polymer increasing the drug solubility by hydrogen bonding forming glassy solutions.

Tacrolimus is a lactone macrolide, derived from Streptomyces tsukubaensis. It is an immunosuppressive drug that has been used in the prevention of organs transplant rejection, such as liver, kidney, heart, small intestine, pancreas and bone marron. The drug is also indicated for the treatment of atopic dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis and vitiligo. It is available as capsules, injection and ointment. Few methods have been reported for tacrolimus quantification in the dosage forms. In the present work, spectrophotometric methods were developed and validated for quantification of the drug in capsules. One method was based on the reaction with concentrated sulfuric acid (98 %), with detection at 295 nm. The other method was based in the charge transfer complex with 0.01M Iodine, with detection at 365 nm. The methods showed good linearity (r>0,99), precision (<0,2%) and accuracy (>99%). Preliminary study for in vitro drug release was also performed. Different dissolution medium (phosphate buffer pH 6.8, acetate buffer pH 5.5 and 0.1M HCl) and different stirring rotate (75 and 100 rpm) were evaluated to select the conditions for dissolution test, using basket apparatus. The percents of drug dissolved were evaluated by high performance liquid chromatographic method described in the literature. The percentage of drug dissolved was more than 85 in 60 minutes. / O tacrolimus é uma lactona macrolídea, derivada do Streptomyces tsukubaensis. É um fármaco imunossupressor usado na prevenção da rejeição de transplante de órgãos, tais como fígado, rim, coração, intestino delgado, pâncreas e medula óssea. É também indicado para tratamento de dermatite atópica, lupus eritematoso, psoríase e vitiligo. Encontra-se comercialmente disponível na forma de cápsulas, injetáveis e pomadas. Poucos métodos estão descritos na literatura para quantificação do tacrolimus nas formas disponíveis. Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidos e validados métodos espectrofotométricos para determinação quantitativa do fármaco em cápsulas. Um dos métodos utilizou reação com ácido sulfúrico concentrado (98%), com detecção em 295 nm. O outro se baseou na reação de complexo de transferência de carga com iodo 0,01M, com detecção em 365 nm. Os métodos desenvolvidos apresentaram linearidade (r>0,99), precisão (<0,2%) e exatidão (>99%) adequadas. Realizou-se, igualmente, estudo preliminar para avaliação do perfil de dissolução in vitro do fármaco. Diferentes meios de dissolução (tampão fosfato pH 6,8, tampão acetato pH 5,5 and HCl 0,1M) e diferentes velocidades de rotação (75 e 100 rpm) foram avaliados para definir as condições para o teste de dissolução, empregando o aparato cesta. As porcentagens dissolvidas do fármaco foram determinadas através de método por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência descrito na literatura. As percentagens dissolvidas foram superiores a 85% em 60 minutos.

The atenolol is a selective β-blocker that acts specially on β-one adrenergic receptors of the heart, used in the control of high blood pressure, pectoris angine, cardiac arrhythmias and the treatment of miocardic stroke. This paper aimed to optimize the described methodologies for drugs and tablets of atenolol. It proposes to develop and validate simple and more accessible tests to evaluate atenolol tablets and raw material. It also emphasizes the ideal characteristics for drugs in the pre-formulation and development of the pharmaceutical form. Methodologies were developed and validated by HPLC and UV spectrophotometric for the quantification of atenolol in tablets. Raw material characterization techniques were also applied for the classification of atenolol in the pre-formulation. A pharmaceutical equivalence test was performed and compared to the national market reference drug. The HPLC developed method presents advantages over the official methodology to establish an analysis without the use of ionic pareator heptane sulphonate, for being faster and more simple. Both quantitative development methods were linear, specific exact, precise, robust and equivalent between themselves. For the dissolution performed with atenolol pharmaceutical form, after the dissolution efficiency analysis no meaningful difference were observed between the obtained dissolution curves through developed methods and the pharmacopeial methodology. The atenolol raw material analysis permitted its characterization, assuring an adequate use in the pharmaceutical form manufacturing. The comparative analysis between the test drug and reference drug allowed to claim that the two formulations are similar and with the some in vitro performance, i.c., they are pharmaceutical equivalent. The described methods are useful in routine quality analysis control of atenolol. The comparative analysis between the proposed methods and official methodology demonstrated that there is no statistical meaningful differences characterizing their equivalence. / O atenolol é um betabloqueador seletivo que age preferencialmente sobre os receptores adrenérgicos beta-1 do coração, utilizado no controle da hipertensão arterial, angina pectoris, arritmias cardíacas e no tratamento do infarto do miocárdio. Este trabalho tem o objetivo de otimizar as metodologias descritas para a avaliação do fármaco e comprimidos de atenolol, através do desenvolvimento e validação de métodos simples e mais acessíveis para avaliação de comprimidos e matéria prima de atenolol. Procura, também, destacar as características ideais para o fármaco na fase de pré-formulação e desenvolvimento da forma farmacêutica. Neste contexto, foram desenvolvidas e validadas metodologias por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE) e espectrofotometria no ultravioleta para quantificação de atenolol em comprimidos. Foram também aplicadas técnicas de caracterização da matéria prima para classificação da mesma na fase de pré-formulação. O método desenvolvido por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência apresenta vantagens sobre o método farmacopeico por estabelecer uma análise sem utilização de reagente de pareamento iônico, heptanossulfonato, por ser mais rápido e simples. Ambos os métodos quantitativos desenvolvidos apresentaram-se lineares, específicos, exatos, precisos, robustos, e equivalentes entre si. Para o estudo de dissolução realizado com as formulações farmacêuticas de atenolol, após a análise de eficiência de dissolução, não se observou variação significativa entre as curvas de dissolução obtidas através dos métodos desenvolvidos e da metodologia farmacopeica. A análise da matériaprima de atenolol permitiu sua caracterização, garantindo um emprego adequado na fabricação da forma farmacêutica. As análises comparativas entre o medicamento teste e o medicamento referência permitem afirmar que as duas formulações são semelhantes e com mesmo desempenho in vitro, isto é, são equivalentes farmacêuticos. Os métodos descritos são úteis em análise de controle de qualidade rotineira de formulações farmacêuticas de atenolol e a análise comparativa entre os métodos propostos e a metodologia oficial, demonstrou não haver diferença estatisticamente significativa, caracterizando a equivalência dos mesmos.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:45:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:09:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 07291.pdf: 4979703 bytes, checksum: e454a20fc002a772e73a3aa1f5d86a92 (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Dissertacao (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP / FAPESP:97/00725-0