La protéine auxiliaire Vpr du VIH-1 est exprimée tardivement au cours de la réplication virale. Toutefois, du fait de son encapsidation dans les particules virales, elle joue un rôle important dès les étapes initiales du cycle de réplication viral. Cette protéine de 96 acides aminés intervient en effet au cours de la rétrotranscription du génome viral puis de la translocation de l’ADN viral vers le noyau de la cellule hôte. Parallèlement, elle provoque un arrêt du cycle cellulaire et l’apoptose des lymphocytes T infectés. Alors qu’il a été établi que Vpr participait au contrôle de la fidélité de la rétrotranscription via le recrutement au sein des particules virales de l’uracile DNA glycosylase 2 (UNG2), enzyme impliquée dans les processus de réparation de l’ADN, certaines études ont ensuite remis en question l’impact positif de l’encapsidation de l’UNG2 sur la réplication virale. Les travaux présentés ici permettent de confirmer le rôle de l’UNG2 dans le contrôle du taux de mutations au sein de l’ADN synthétisé à partir de l'ARN viral par un mécanisme indépendant de son activité enzymatique, mais lié à des déterminants situés dans la partie N-terminale de la protéine engagée dans le recrutement de la sous-unité p32 du complexe RPA (Replication protein A) (RPA32). Nous avons montré, dans un premier temps, que la production de virus dans des cellules dont les niveaux d'expression de l'UNG2 et de RPA32 étaient diminués se traduisait par une réduction significative du pouvoir infectieux des particules virales et de la synthèse de l’ADN viral. Nous avons ensuite montré que la protéine Vpr est capable de former un complexe tri-moléculaire avec les protéines UNG2 et RPA32, et confirmé l’importance de ces deux protéines cellulaires pour permettre une réplication virale optimale aussi bien dans des lignées cellulaires T que dans les cellules primaires cibles du VIH-1. Même si les macrophages et les PBMCs (cellules mononucléaires du sang périphérique), cellules cibles du VIH-1, expriment des niveaux faibles d’UNG2 et de RPA32, ces protéines cellulaires semblent requises pour permettre une synthèse d'ADN virale suffisante à la réplication optimale du virus dans ces cellules primaires. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère que le contrôle de la rétrotranscription par Vpr a lieu via le recrutement de deux protéines cellulaires UNG2 et RPA32 permettant la dissémination efficace du VIH-1 dans les cellules cibles primaires. / The HIV-1 auxiliary protein Vpr is expressed during the late steps of the viral replication. However, Vpr is incorporated into HIV-1 viral particles and plays a key role during the initial steps of the viral replication cycle. This 96 amino acids protein is involved in viral genome reverse transcription as well as in viral DNA translocation into the nucleus of the host cell. In parallel, Vpr provokes cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of infected T cells. Previously, it has been well established that Vpr participates in the control of the fidelity of the reverse transcription through the recruitment of the Uracil DNA Glycosylase 2 (UNG2) into the viral particles. UNG2 is an enzyme involved in different DNA repair pathway. However some studies have challenged the positive impact of UNG2 encapsidation for HIV-1 replication. Here, our studies confirm the important role of UNG2 for the control of the mutation rate in the newly synthesized viral DNA by a mechanism independent of its enzymatic activity but dependent to determinants located in the N-terminal domain that is involved in the recruitment of the p32 subunit of the RPA (Replication Protein A) complex (RPA32). First we showed that viruses produced in UNG2 or RPA32 depleted cells present a defect of infectivity and that the reverse transcription step is impaired during the course of infection of these viruses. Then we reported that the Vpr protein is able to form a trimolecular complex with UNG2 and RPA32 and we confirmed the importance of both UNG2 and RPA32 for optimal virus replication in a T cell line as well as in HIV-1 primary target cells. Even though macrophages and PBMCs (Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells), target cells of HIV-1, express low level of UNG2 and RPA32, these cellular proteins seem to be required for an efficient viral DNA synthesis leading to an optimal virus replication in primary cells. All these results suggest that Vpr controls the reverse transcription step through the recruitment of two cellular proteins UNG2 and RPA32 which allow the efficient dissemination of HIV-1 in the primary target cells.

No description available.

To maintain the genomic integrity, cell has evolved various DNA repair pathways. Base Excision Repair pathway (BER) is one such DNA repair pathway which is dedicated to protect DNA from small lesions such as oxidation, alkylation, deamination and loss of bases. Uracil is a promutagenic base which appears in the genome as a result of misincorporation of dUTP or due to oxidative deamination of cytosine. Uracil-DNA glycosylases (UDGs) are DNA repair enzymes that initiate multistep base excision repair (BER) pathway to excise uracil from DNA. Excision of uracil generates an abasic site (APDNA). AP-sites are cytotoxic and mutagenic to the cell. AP endonucleases act downstream to UDG in this pathway and generate substrates for DNA polymerase to fill in the correct bases. The cytotoxicity of AP-sites raises the question whether uracil excision activity is coupled to AP endonuclease activity. Also, there is transient formation of single stranded DNA (ssDNA) during DNA metabolic processes such as replication, repair and recombination. ssDNA is more prone to various nucleases and DNA damaging agents. All the living organisms encode single stranded DNA binding protein (SSB) that binds to ssDNA and protects it from various damages. In addition, SSB plays a vital role during DNA replication, repair and recombination. Studies on SSBs from prototype Escherichia coli and an important human pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis have shown that despite significant variations in their quaternary structures, the DNA binding and oligomerization properties of the two are similar. My PhD thesis consists of four Chapters. Chapter 1 summarizes the relevant literature review on DNA damage and repair with an emphasis on uracil DNA glycosylase and its interacting protein, SSB. Chapters 2 and 3 describe my studies on the mechanism of uracil excision repair in E. coli. Chapter 4 describes my findings on the structure-function relationship of single stranded DNA binding proteins from E. coli and M. tuberculosis. Specific details of my research are summarized as follows: (1) Analysis of the impact of allelic exchange of ung with a mutant gene encoding Uracil DNA Glycosylase attenuated in AP-DNA binding in the maintenance of genomic integrity in Escherichia coli. There are five families of UDGs. Of these, Ung proteins (family 1 UDGs) represent highly efficient and evolutionary conserved enzymes. Structural and biochemical analysis of Ung proteins has identified two conserved motif, motif A (62GQDPY66) and motif B (187HPSPLS192) in E. coli that are important for the catalysis by Ung enzyme. Y66 of motif A is in van der Waals contact with the C5 position of the uracil and prevents entry of other bases. Earlier study from the laboratory showed that the Y66W and Y66H mutants of Ung were compromised by ~7 and ~170 fold, respectively in their uracil excision activities. However, unlike the wild-type and Y66H proteins, Y66W was not inhibited by its product (uracil or AP-DNA). In this study, by fluorescence anisotropy measurements I have shown that compared with the wild-type protein, the Y66W mutant is moderately compromised and attenuated in binding to AP-DNA. Allelic exchange of ung in E. coli with ung::kan, ungY66H:amp or ungY66W:amp alleles showed ~5, ~3.0 and ~2.0 fold, respectively increase in mutation frequencies. Analysis of mutations in the rifampicin resistance determining region (RRDR) of rpoB revealed that the Y66W allele resulted in an increase in A to G (or T to C) mutations. However, the increase in A to G mutations was mitigated upon expression of wild-type Ung from a plasmid borne gene. Biochemical and computational analyses showed that the Y66W mutant maintains strict specificity for uracil excision from DNA. Interestingly, a strain deficient in AP-endonucleases also showed an increase in A to G mutations. These findings have been discussed in the context of a proposal that the residency of DNA glycosylase(s) onto the AP-sites they generate shields them until recruitment of AP-endonucleases for further repair. It is proposed that an error prone replication against AP-sites (as a result of uracil excision activities on A:U pair) may result in A to G mutations. 2. Mechanism of appearance of A to G mutations in ungY66W:amp strain of Escherichia coli. In this part of my study, I have investigated the role of error prone DNA polymerases in the mutational specificity of ungY66W:amp strain. It was observed from various studies in E. coli that, DNA polymerase IV (Pol IV) and DNA polymerase V (Pol V) are involved in error-prone replication on damaged or AP-site containing DNA. E. coli strains containing deletion of either dinB (encoding DNA Pol IV) or umuDC (encoding DNA Pol V) were generated and used to study mutation frequency and mutation spectrum. Deletion of DNA Pol V resulted in a decrease in A to G mutations in ungY66W:amp E. coli strain, suggesting that increase in A to G mutations were a consequence of error prone incorporation by DNA Pol V. 3. Structure and Function studies on Single Stranded DNA Binding Proteins from Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. SSB from M. tuberculosis (MtuSSB) has similar domain organization as the EcoSSB. Moreover, the biochemical properties such as oligomerization, DNA binding affinity and minimum binding site size requirements were shown to be similar to EcoSSB. However, structural studies suggested that quaternary structures of these two SSBs are variable. In this study I have used X-ray crystal structure information of these two SSBs to generate various chimeras after swapping at various regions of SSBs. Chimeras mβ1, mβ1’β2, mβ1-β5, mβ1-β6, and mβ4-β5 SSBs were generated by substituting β1 (residues 611), β1’β2 (residues 21-45), β1-β5 (residues 1 to 111), β1-β6 including a downstream sequence (residues 1 to 130), and β4-β5 (residues 74-111) regions of EcoSSB with the corresponding sequences of MtuSSB, respectively. Additionally, mβ1’β2ESWR SSB was generated by mutating the MtuSSB specific ‘PRIY’ sequence in the β2 strand of mβ1’β2 SSB to EcoSSB specific ‘ESWR’ sequence. Biochemical characterization revealed that except for mβ1 SSB, all chimeras and a control construct lacking the C-terminal domain (ΔC SSB) efficiently bound DNA in modes corresponding to limited and unlimited modes of binding. The mβ1 SSB was also hypersensitive to chymotrypsin treatment. The mβ1-β6, MtuSSB, mβ1’β2 and mβ1-β5 constructs complemented E. coli Δssb in a dose dependent manner. Complementation by the mβ1-β5 SSB was poor. In contrast, mβ1’β2ESWR SSB complemented E. coli as well as EcoSSB. Interestingly, the inefficiently functioning SSBs resulted in an elongated cell/filamentation phenotype of E. coli. Taken together, our observations suggest that specific interactions within the DNA binding domain of the homotetrameric SSBs are crucial for their biological function.

The mammalian epigenome is globally reprogrammed at two stages of development; this involves the erasure and re-establishment of DNA methylation by both passive and active mechanisms, including DNA repair pathways, and occurs concurrently with an increase in developmental potency. In addition to Uhrf1 and the Tet enzymes, the interplay between activation induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and the DNA repair machinery has been implicated in epigenetic reprogramming of various in vivo and in vitro systems including mouse primordial germ cells, zygotes and induced pluripotent stem cells. AID deaminates cytosine to uracil and can also deaminate methylcytosine, whereas the primary role of UNG is to maintain the integrity of the genome through erasure of uracil. In this thesis, I have aimed to investigate the role of DNA repair in demethylation. To do this I have focused on the specific role of AID and UNG in the demethylation of a static system – primed serum ESCs and a dynamic system – serum to 2i (naïve) to epiblast-like ES cells. As the role of both AID and UNG involves genomic uracil, the central theme of my thesis is the impact of accumulation of uracil on DNA methylation levels in the genome. Therefore, my first aim was to develop a quantitative method to detect low levels of genomic uracil in DNA firstly, by mass spectrometry and secondly, by whole genome sequencing. In Chapter Three, I show that the impact of deamination during DNA preparation can be minimised, such that the level of genomic ESC uracil can be accurately determined as around 12,000 uracil per genome and that, as anticipated, Ung null ESCs have almost twice the genomic uracil content of wildtype ESCs. Secondly, I address the main question which is the impact of uracil accumulation on methylation levels. In order to do this, I generate two cell lines: Ung knockout and Aid over expressing, both of which should result in an increase in genomic uracil. I demonstrate that while over expression of Aid stimulates demethylation in static system and in a dynamic demethylating system, the impact of Ung knockout is less clear. In (static) serum ESCs, loss of Ung results in hypomethylation however, in order to transition to 2i (naïve) ESCs, a process which involves demethylation of the genome, it appears the Ung is required as loss of this gene inhibits proper demethylation. As such, I conclude that UNG-mediated DNA repair functions alongside passive demethylation, by reduction of UHRF1 levels, to demethylate 2i ESCs. To probe the mechanism by which accumulation of uracil in the genome alters methylation levels, I investigate the impact of Ung KO and Aid OE on global levels of DNA damage. I show that both cell lines have a greater incidence of double strand breaks compared to a wild type cell line, and accordingly, upregulate their DNA damage response pathway and the expression of certain repair genes. I suggest that increasing genomic levels of uracil causes genomic instability and that DNA demethylation occurs as a consequence of the repair of extensive DNA damage. More broadly, I suggest that ESCs are uniquely poised, due to their heightened DNA damage response, to use uracil as an intermediate of DNA demethylation. Interestingly, I also note that the biological impact on serum ESCs of loss of Ung appears to be an increase in pluripotency.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:03:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 AdilsonST_DISSERT.pdf: 1536537 bytes, checksum: ea209d9f1b9abb20e4a9c39ef312c31d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-22 / Sugarcane has an importance in Brazil due to sugar and biofuel production. Considering this aspect, there is basic research being done in order to understand its physiology to improve production. The aim of this research is the Base Excision Repair pathway, in special the enzyme MUTM DNA-glycosylase (formamidopyrimidine) which recognizes oxidized guanine in DNA. The sugarcane scMUTM genes were analyzed using four BACs (Bacterial Artificial Chromosome) from a sugarcane genomic library from R570 cultivar. The resulted showed the presence in the region that had homology to scMUTM the presence of transposable elements. Comparing the similarity, it was observed a highest similarity to Sorghum bicolor sequence, both nucleotide and peptide sequences. Furthermore, promoter regions from MUTM genes in some grass showed different cis-regulatory elements, among which, most were related to oxidative stress, suggesting a gene regulation by oxidative stress / A cana-de-a??car ? uma das principais culturas brasileiras e importante, principalmente, pela produ??o de a??car e biocombust?vel. Por isso, manter a qualidade das cultivares desta esp?cie tornou-se alvo das pesquisas envolvendo gen?tica e bioqu?mica moleculares. Um dos objetivos destas pesquisas ? descobrir informa??es ?teis sobre o material gen?tico que as cultivares da cana-de-a??car possuem, para utiliz?-las como ferramentas no melhoramento contra intemp?ries que afetam sua produ??o, muitas vezes, de forma dr?stica. O foco deste trabalho ? a via de reparo de DNA conhecida por Reparo por Excis?o de Base, mais precisamente, a enzima DNA-glicosilase MUTM (formamidopirimidina-DNA-glicosilase), a qual reconhece e repara guaninas oxidadas no DNA. A caracteriza??o dos genes MUTM da cana-de-a??car foi realizada a partir das an?lises de quatro BACs (Bacterial Artificial Chromosome) de uma biblioteca gen?mica da cultivar R570. Os resultados obtidos dos alinhamentos mostraram a presen?a marcante de elementos de transposi??o. Al?m disso, foi verificado que os genes MUTM foram altamente similares aos de Sorghum bicolor, tanto em sequ?ncias nucleot?dicas e pept?dicas, como na estrutura g?nica. Foi analisado tamb?m que as regi?es promotoras de genes MUTM em algumas gram?neas apresentam v?rios elementos reguladores de express?o, associados com o estresse oxidativo, indicando uma regula??o por estresse oxidativo

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:18:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 VivianeKM.pdf: 34009 bytes, checksum: 80f5f4645fd6e0b6573613b53e2fcf67 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-02-23 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico / Plants are organisms sessile and because of this they are susceptible to genotoxic effects due to environmental exposure such as light [including ultraviolet (UV)], heat, drought and chemicals agents. Therefore, there are differents pathways in order to detect a lesion and correct. These pathways are not well known in plants. The MutM/Fpg protein is a DNA glycosylase that is responsible for detect and correct oxidative lesions. In the sugarcane genome, it was found two possible cDNAs that had homology to this protein: scMUTM1 and scMUTM2. The aim of this work was to characterize the role of these cDNAs in plants. In order to do this, the expression level after oxidative stress was evaluated by semiquantitative RT-PCR. Another point analyzed in order to obtain the full-length gene, it was to use a sugarcane genomic library that was hybridized with both cDNAs as a probe. It was found two clones that will bought and sequenced. The promoter region was also cloned. It was obtained sequences only for scMUTM2 promoter region. The sequences obtained were divided into six groups. It was found regulatory motifs such as TATA-box, CAAT-box, oxidative stress element response and regulatory regions that response to light. The other point analyzed was to characterize the N-terminal region by PCR constructs. These constructs have deletions at 5 region. These sequences were introduce into Escherichia coli wild type strain (CC104) and double mutant (CC104mutMmutY). The results showed that proteins with deletions of scMUTM1 N-terminal region were able to complement the Fpg and MutY-glycosylase deficiency in CC104 mutMmutY reducing the spontaneous mutation frequency / As plantas s?o organismos particularmente suscept?veis aos efeitos genot?xicos devido a sua constante exposi??o a agentes do meio ambiente tais como a luz [incluindo a ultravioleta (UV)], o calor, a seca e diferentes subst?ncias qu?micas. Entretanto, existem diferentes mecanismos de reparo para detectar estas les?es e corrigi-las. Entretanto, em plantas estas vias s?o pouco compreendidas. Uma das vias ? a por excis?o de bases (BER). A prote?na MUTM/FPG ? uma DNA glicosilase da via BER que corrige danos oxidativos. No genoma da cana-de-a??car foram encontrados dois poss?veis cDNAs que possuem homologia de seq??ncia a esta prote?na: scMUTM1 e scMUTM2. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar o papel destes genes em plantas. Para isto, o n?vel de express?o dos genes ap?s estresse oxidativo foi avaliado atrav?s de RT-PCR semiquantitativo. Para obter a sequ?ncia completa dos gene, uma biblioteca de DNA gen?mico de cana-de-a??car foi hibridizada com sondas radioativas para ambos cDNAs, encontrando-se dois clones em potencial. A regi?o promotora foi clonada, seq?enciada e analisada. Dentro das seq??ncias obtidas para a regi?o promotora de scMUTM2, estas podem ser divididas em seis grupos. Os motivos regulat?rios foram identificados, tais como o TATA-box, CAAT-box, elementos de resposta ao estresse oxidativo e elementos de resposta ? luz. Um outro ponto de interesse neste trabalho foi a caracteriza??o da regi?o N-terminal da prote?na scMUTM1. Para isto, foram realizadas algumas constru??es via PCR. Estas constru??es foram posteriormente introduzidas em cepas selvagem (CC104) e duplo mutante (CC104mutMmutY) de Escherichia coli e foram realizados ensaios de complementa??o de modo a avaliar a import?ncia de cada regi?o para o reconhecimento e corre??o das les?es. Os resultados mostraram que as prote?nas com dele??es na por??o N-terminal de scMUTM1 s?o capazes de complementar a defici?ncia de Fpg and MutY-glicosilase na bact?ria CC104 mutMmutY reduzindo assim a freq??ncia de muta??o espont?nea

No description available.

L’ADN, support de l’information génétique, est constamment altéré par des agents physiques ou chimiques d’origines endogènes (métabolisme) et exogènes (UV, radiations ionisantes, produits chimiques) dont les effets sont génotoxiques. Ces modifications structurales délétères de l’ADN sont éliminées par de nombreux mécanismes de réparation. Parmi eux, le système de réparation par excision de bases (BER) est initié par les ADN glycosylases qui reconnaissent et éliminent les bases endommagées. Dans certaines stratégies anti-cancéreuses, l’utilisation de la chimiothérapie et la radiothérapie ont pour but la destruction des cellules cancéreuses en altérant leur ADN. Dans ce contexte, les ADN glycosylases réparent l’ADN des cellules traitées et induisent une résistance non désirée au traitement, faisant de ces enzymes des cibles thérapeutiques intéressantes. Le but de ces travaux est d’approfondir la compréhension des mécanismes de réparation des ADN glycosylases de la superfamille structurale Fpg/Nei grâce à la modélisation moléculaire et de pouvoir identifier et concevoir des inhibiteurs de ces enzymes. Les simulations de dynamique moléculaire (DM) nous ont permis d’étudier la « Lesion Capping Loop » (LCL) et de l’associer à la stabilisation de la base endommagée positionnée dans le site actif. Nous avons également étudié les chemins de sortie possibles de la base après coupure par l’enzyme et l’implication de la boucle LCL dans ce phénomène grâce à des simulations de DM ciblée (TMD-1). De plus, les simulations de DM couplées à un protocole d’amarrage moléculaire « aveugle » nous ont permis d’identifier 2 sites de fixations possibles majoritaires pour des petites molécules potentiellement inhibitrices. Un de ces sites correspondant au site actif de hNEIL1 a fait l’objet d’un criblage virtuel d’une partie de la base de molécules Ambinter. Ceci nous a permis d’identifier des molécules potentiellement inhibitrices dont les effets seront prochainement testés in vitro dans l’équipe sur la protéine humaine hNeil1. / The DNA, genetic information support, is frequently damaged by physical or chemical agents from endogenous (cell metabolism) and exogenous (UV, ionizing radiations, chemicals) factors whose effects are genotoxic. These deleterious DNA structural alterations are removed by many DNA repair mechanisms. Among them, the base excision repair (BER) is initiated by DNA glycosylases which recognize and remove damaged bases. In some anti-cancer strategies, the use of chemo- and radiotherapy is aimed to cancerous cells destruction by altering their DNA. In that specific context, DNA glycosylases repair the DNA of treated cells and induce unwanted resistance to treatments, making these enzymes interesting therapeutic targets. The purpose of this work is to deepen the repair mechanism knowledge of Fpg/Nei structural superfamily of DNA glycosylases using molecular modeling and designing inhibitors of these enzymes. Molecular dynamic simulations allowed us to study the « Lesion Capping Loop » (LCL) and to associate its role to substrate stabilization in the enzyme active site. We also studied some possible excision’s product release pathways and LCL implication in this phenomena by targeted molecular dynamic simulations (TMD-1). Furthermore, molecular dynamic simulations coupled to a blind molecular docking protocol allowed us to identify 2 possible main binding sites of potential inhibitiors. One of these binding sites corresponding to the hNEIL1 active site has been the object of a virtual screening of the Greenpharma database. This allowed us to identify potential inhibitors whom effects will be soon tested in vitro on the humain protein hNEIL1.

DNA repair proteins in mycobacteria and their physiological importance Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative organism of tuberculosis, resides in the host macrophages where it is subjected to a plethora of stresses like reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen intermediate(RNI) which are generated as a part of the host’s primary immune response. These stresses can damage the cellular components of the pathogen including DNA and its precursors. Two common damages to DNA and its precursors caused by ROS and RNI are oxidation of guanine to 8-oxo-guanine and deamination of cytosine to uracil. Mycobacteria, which are known to have high G+C content, must be more susceptible to such damages, and are thus equipped with the mechanisms to counteract these damages. One such mechanism is to hydrolyse the 8-oxo-dGTP into 8-oxo-dGMP to avoid its incorporation in the DNA during its synthesis. This job is done by a protein called MutT.In mycobacteria four homologs of MutT, namely MutT1, MutT2, MutT3 and MutT4 have been annotated. The second mechanism deals with the repair of uracil residues present in DNA which are generated by deamination of cytosines or incorporation of dUTP during DNA synthesis. This is taken care of by a protein called uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG) which excises uracil by cleaving the N-C1’ glycosidic bond between the uracil and the deoxyribose sugar in a DNA repair pathway called the base excision repair (BER). In this study, the biochemical properties and physiological role of mycobacterial MutT2 and, MSMEG_0265 (MsmUdgX), a novel uracil DNA glycosylase superfamily protein, have been investigated. I.Biochemical characterization of MutT2 from mycobacteria and its antimutator role. Nucleotide pool, the substrate for DNA synthesis is one of the targets of ROS which is generated in the macrophage upon Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Thus, the pathogen is at increased risk of accumulating oxidised guanine nucleotides such as 8-oxo-dGTP and 8-oxo-GTP. By hydrolysing the damaged guanine nucleotides before their incorporation into nucleic acids, MutT proteins play a critical role inallowing organisms to avoid their deleterious effects. Mycobacteria possess several MutT proteins. Here, we have purified recombinantM. tuberculosisMutT2 (MtuMutT2) andM. smegmatisMutT2 (MsmMutT2) proteins as representative of slow and fast growing mycobacteria, for the purpose of biochemical characterization. UnlikeEscherichia coliMutT, which hydrolyzes 8-oxo-dGTP and 8-oxo-GTP, the mycobacterial proteins hydrolyze not only 8-oxo-dGTP and 8-oxo-GTP but also dCTP and 5-methyl-dCTP. Determination of kinetic parameters (KmandVmax) revealed thatwhileMtuMutT2 hydrolyzes dCTP nearly four times better than it does 8-oxo-dGTP,MsmMutT2 hydrolyzes them almost equally well. Also,MsmMutT2 is about 14 times more efficient thanMtuMutT2 in its catalytic activity of hydrolyzing 8-oxo-dGTP.Consistent with these observations,MsmMutT2 but notMtuMutT2 rescuesE. colifor MutT deficiency by decreasing both themutation frequency and A to C mutations (a hallmark of MutT deficiency). We discuss these findings in the context of the physiological significance of MutT proteins. II.Understanding the biochemical properties of MSMEG_0265 (MsmUdgX), a novel uracil DNA glycosylase superfamily protein Uracil DNA glycosylases (UDGs) are base excision repair enzymes which excise uracil from DNA by cleaving the N-glycosidic bond. UDGs are classified into 6 different families based on their two functional motifs, i. e.,motif A and motif B. In mycobacteria, there are two uracil DNA glycosylases, Ung and UdgB which belong to Family 1 and Family 5, respectively. In this study, based on the presence of the two functional motifs, we have discovered yet another uracil DNA glycosylase in M. smegmatis, which we have called MsmUdgX.The motif A and motif B of this protein indicate that it does not belong to any of the UDG families already classified but has highest similarity with Family 4 UDGs. Homologs of this protein are also present in several other organisms like M. avium, Streptomyces ceolicolor, Rhodococcus etc., but absent in M. tuberculosis, archaea and eukaryotes. Activity assays of this protein show that unlike other UDGs, MsmUdgX does not excise uracil, but forms a tight complex with uracil containing single stranded (ss) and double stranded (ds) DNAs, as observed by a shifted band in 8M urea-PAGE as well as SDS-PAGE. It also does not recognize other modified nucleotides that we investigated, in DNA. The protein binds to uracil-DNA in a wide range of pH and the minimum substrate required for its binding is pNUNN. Like Family 4 UDG, the protein has Fe-S cluster but it is not as thermostable as the Family 4 UDGs. Addition of different metal ions does not affect its binding property, and even the presence of M. smegmatis cell free extract does not diminish its binding activity. Since this protein binds specifically to uracil in DNA, an application of the protein for detection of uracil in the genomic DNA is proposed. III. Elucidation of the role of KRRIH loop in MsmUdgX by mutational analysis MsmUdgX is a novel uracil DNA glycosylase superfamily protein which has the highest homology to Family 4 UDGs. However, alignment of MsmUdgX amino acid sequence with that of Family 4 UDGs shows that there is an extra stretch of amino acids which is unique to this group of proteins. This stretch, defined by AGGKRRIH is absent in all Family 4 UDGs and the region KRRIH of the strtch is quite conserved amongst all UdgX proteins. Homology modelling of MsmUdgX, using a Family 4 UDG (TthUdgA) shows that this extra stretch of amino acids forms an outloop near the enzyme active site. Another unique difference between MsmUdgX and Family 4 UDGs is in the motif A where MsmUdgX has GEQPG and the Family 4 UDGs haveGE(A/G)PG. Our work on MsmUdgX has shown that, unlike other UDGs, this protein does not excise uracils, but forms a tight complex with the uracil containing DNA. This unique tight uracil binding property as well as KRRIH amino acid stretch has not been observed for any uracil DNA glycosylase superfamily proteins. So, to gain insight into the role of KRRIH and glutamine (Q) of motif A in MsmUdgX family of proteins, site directed mutagenesis was done in this region and we observed that mutation of His109 of the KRRIH loop to serine (S) leads to a gain of uracil excision activity, whereas changing the R107 to S, ‘RRIH’ to ‘SSAS’ or deleting the loop altogether leads to loss of its complex formation activity. Further, mutation of H109 to other amino acids like G, Q and A also shows uracil excision activity. Mutation of the glutamine in the motif A to alanine so that it is exactly similar to that of Family 4 UDGs, does not affect its uracil binding activity. This observation indicates that the KRRIH loop has an important role in the tight binding and/or uracil excision activity of MsmUdgX. Crystal structure of MsmUdgX in complex with uracil-DNA oligo and MsmUdgX H109S mutants are being studied.IV. Physiological importance of MsmUdgX in M. smegmatis MsmUdgX is a uracil DNA glycosylase superfamily protein which binds tightly to uracil (in DNA) without excising it. To elucidate its role in M. smegmatis, knockout of udgX was generated. Growth comparison of the wild type and the ΔudgX strains does not show any growth differences under the conditions tested. However, overexpression of MsmUdgX in recA deficient strains of E. coli as well as M. smegmatis leads to their retarded growth. Retarded grown is also observed in strains deficient in other DNA repair proteins that work in conjunction with RecA. These observations indicate that repair/release of MsmUdgX-uracil DNA complex might be a RecA dependent process.

For survival and successful propagation, every organism has to maintain the genomic integrity of the cell. The information content, in the form of nucleotide bases, is constantly threatened by endogenous agents and environmental pollutants. In particular, pathogenic mycobacteria are constantly exposed to DNA-damaging assaults such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen intermediate (RNI), in their habitat which is inside host macrophage. In addition, the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis makes it more susceptible for guanine oxidation and cytosine deamination as it is G-C rich. Therefore DNA repair mechanisms are extremely important for the mycobacterium. An important enzyme involved in DNA repair is uracil-DNA glycosylase (Ung). To access the genomic information, during repair as well as DNA replication and recombination, dsDNA must unwind to form single stranded (ss) intermediates. ssDNA is more prone to chemical and nuclease attacks that can produce breaks or lesions and can also inappropriately self associate. In order to preserve ssDNA intermediates, cells have evolved a specialized class of ssDNA-binding proteins (SSB) that associate with ssDNA with high affinity. As part of a major programme on mycobacterial proteins in this laboratory, structural studies on mycobacterial uracil-DNA glycosylase (Ung) and single-stranded DNA binding protein (SSB) have been carried out. The structures were solved using the well-established techniques of protein X-ray crystallography. The hanging drop vapour diffusion and microbatch methods were used for crystallization in all cases. X-ray intensity data were collected on a MAR Research imaging plate mounted on a Rigaku RU200 X-ray generator. The data were processed using the HKL program suite. The structures were solved by the molecular replacement method using the program PHASER and AMoRe. Structure refinements were carried out using the programs CNS and REFMAC. Model building was carried out using COOT. PROCHECK, ALIGN, INSIGHT and NACCESS were used for structure validation and analysis of the refined structures. MD simulations were performed using the software package GROMACS v 3.3.1. Uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG), a repair enzyme involved in the excision of uracil from DNA, from mycobacteria differs from UNGs from other sources, particularly in the sequence in the catalytically important loops. The structure of the enzyme from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MtUng) in complex with a proteinaceous inhibitor (Ugi) has been determined by X-ray analysis of a crystal containing seven crystallographically independent copies of the complex. This structure provides the first geometric characterization of a mycobacterial UNG. A comparison of the structure with those of other UNG proteins of known structure shows that a central core region of the molecule is relatively invariant in structure and sequence, while the N- and C-terminal tails exhibit high variability. The tails are probably important in folding and stability. The mycobacterial enzyme exhibits differences in UNG-Ugi interactions compared with those involving UNG from other sources. The MtUng-DNA complex modelled on the basis of the known structure of the complex involving the human enzyme indicates a domain closure in the enzyme when binding to DNA. The binding involves a larger burial of surface area than is observed in binding by human UNG. The DNA-binding site of MtUng is characterized by the presence of a higher proportion of arginyl residues than is found in the binding site of any other UNG of known structure. In addition to the electrostatic effects produced by the arginyl residues, the hydrogen bonds in which they are involved compensate for the loss of some interactions arising from changes in amino-acid residues, particularly in the catalytic loops. The results arising from the present investigation represent unique features of the structure and interaction of mycobacterial Ungs. To gain further insights, the structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ung (MtUng) in its free form was also determined. Comparison with appropriate structures indicate that the two domain enzyme slightly closes up when binding to DNA while it slightly opens up when binding to its proteinaceous inhibitor Ugi. The structural changes on complexation in the catalytic loops reflect the special features of their structure in the mycobacterial protein. A comparative analysis of available sequences of the enzyme from different sources indicates high conservation of amino acid residues in the catalytic loops. The uracil binding pocket in the structure is occupied by a citrate ion. The interactions of the citrate ion with the protein mimic those of uracil in addition to providing insights into other possible interactions that inhibitors could be involved in. SSB is an essential accessory protein required during DNA replication, repair and recombination, and various other DNA transactions. Eubacteral single stranded DNA binding (SSB) proteins constitute an extensively studied family of proteins. The variability in the quaternary association in these tetrameric proteins was first demonstrated through the X-ray analysis of the crystal structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis SSB (MtSSB) and Mycobacterium smegmatis (MsSSB) in this laboratory. Subsequent studies on these proteins elsewhere have further explored this variability, but attention was solely concentrated on the variability in the relative orientation of the two dimers that constitute the tetramer. Furthermore, the effect of this variability on the properties of the tetrameric molecule was not adequately addressed. In order to further explore this variability and strengthen structural information on mycobacterial SSBs in particular, and on SSB proteins in general, the crystal structures of two forms of Mycobacterium leprae single stranded DNA-binding protein (MlSSB) has been determined. Comparison of the structures with other eubacterial SSB structures indicates considerable variation in their quaternary association although the DNA binding domains in all of them exhibit the same OB-fold. This variation has no linear correlation with sequence variation, but it appears to correlate well with variation in protein stability. Molecular dynamics simulations have been carried out on tetrameric molecules derived from the two forms and the prototype E. coli SSB and the individual subunits of both the proteins. The X-ray studies and molecular dynamics simulations together yield information on the relatively rigid and flexible regions of the molecule and the effect of oligomerization on flexibility. The simulations provide insights into the changes in the subunit structure on oligomerization. They also provide insights into the stability and time evolution of the hydrogen bonds/water-bridges that connect two pairs of monomers in the tetramer. In continuation of our effort to understand structure-function relationships of mycobacterial SSBs, the structure of MsSSB complexed with a 31-mer polydeoxy-cytidine single stranded DNA (ssDNA) was determined. The mode of ssDNA binding in the MsSSB is different from the modes in the known structures of similar complexes of the proteins from E. coli (EcSSB) and Helicobacter pylori (HpSSB). The modes in the EcSSB and HpSSB also exhibit considerable differences between them. A comparison of the three structures reveals the promiscuity of DNA-binding to SSBs from different species in terms of symmetry and the path followed by the bound DNA chain. It also reveals commonalities within the diversity. The regions of the protein molecule involved in DNA-binding and the nature of the residues which interact with the DNA, exhibit substantial similarities. The regions which exhibit similarities are on the central core of the subunit which is unaffected by tetramerisation. The variable features of DNA binding are associated with the periphery of the subunit, which is involved in oligomerization. Thus, there is some correlation between variability in DNA-binding and the known variability in tetrameric association in SSBs. In addition to the work on Ung and SSB, the author was involved in X-ray studies on crystals of horse methemoglobin at different levels of hydration, which is described in the Appendix of the thesis. The crystal structure of high-salt horse methaemoglobin has been determined at environmental relative humidities (r.h.) of 88, 79, 75 and 66%. The molecule is in the R state in the native and the r.h. 88% crystals. At r.h.79% the molecule appears to move towards the R2 state. The crystal structure at r.h.66% is similar, but not identical, to that at r.h.75%. Thus variation in hydration leads to variation in the quaternary structure. Furthermore, partial dehydration appears to shift the structure from the R state to the R2 state. This observation is in agreement with the earlier conclusion that the changes in protein structure that accompany partial dehydration are similar to those that occur during protein action. A part of the work presented in the thesis has been reported in the following publications. 1. Singh, P., Talawar, R.K., Krishna, P.D., Varshney, U. & Vijayan, M. (2006). Overexpression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of uracil N-glycosylase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis in complex with a proteinaceous inhibitor. Acta Crystallogr. F62, 1231-1234. 2. Kaushal, P.S., Talawar, R.K., Krishna, P.D., Varshney, U. & Vijayan, M. (2008). Unique features of the structure and interactions of mycobacterial uracil-DNA glycosylase: structure of a complex of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis enzyme in comparison with those from other sources. Acta Crystallogr. D64, 551-560. 3. Kaushal, P.S., Sankaranarayanan, R. & Vijayan, M. (2008). Water-mediated variability in the structure of relaxed-state haemoglobin. Acta Crystallogr. F64, 463-469.