In 1970, cross-town busing was court mandated to enforce school desegregation in Richmond, Virginia. Unitary status was declared in Richmond when cross-town busing ended in 1986. Richmond Public Schools (RPS) no longer operated as a dual school system for blacks and whites after 1986. Class and racial segregation continued to exist in the City of Richmond. RPS remained predominately black and poor. Socio-economic conditions of the city continued to impact the school district. Controversies, mismanagement and low academic achievement stigmatized RPS until state and federal performance measures forced the district to improve. By 2006, RPS was still segregated; however, as a result of better leadership, academic success was demonstrated on Standards of Learning (SOL) assessments.

As we near the 60th anniversary of the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, questions still remain about its salience and our ability to provide equal educational opportunities to students of all races and ethnicities. Additionally, scholars and observers alike note the continual shift toward resegregation in American schools, but few have probed exactly why this occurs and the empirical implications of this shift. As such, this dissertation project explores the “new” political domain of school desegregation policy to understand why some school districts are resegregating while others maintain their racial balance, and the substantive implications of this divide for minority students. The goal of this research is two-fold. First, I investigate the determinants of desegregation policy, arguing that a set of institutional (representation), structural, and management factors best predict a district’s level of racial balance as an indicator of the active pursuit of desegregation. Second, I examine student outcomes and performance under both educational settings—racially balanced and imbalanced—to determine where students fare better and how much the racial context matters to student outcomes. I frame this question theoretically in the organizational theory research on external control, in which I argue that the policy environment, in this case, the racial context as denoted by the level of racial balance, influences the extent to which structure, representation, and management affect outcomes. I compare outcomes under the two policy environments, racially balanced and imbalanced districts, to see their effect on the noted factors and where students fare better. The general results show that the broad assumption and desegregation literature finding that racially balanced schools are better for minority students is not supported. Minority students can also gain the same if not better outcomes in racially imbalanced districts. I also find that while the tested predictors play an important role, the policy environment significantly contributes to their role and outcomes. For policy makers and practitioners this means that one way to gain the equality that the Brown decision sought is to shift the focus on improving board and teacher representation or management strategies and practices. The dissertation challenges assumptions of political decisions and outcomes that fail to consider the external policy environment.

No description available.

The problem addressed by this study was that of determining whether significant differences existed among selected apprehensions of black and white teachers in twelve Illinois School Districts with operative staff desegregation programs. The major assumption of this study was that both black and white teachers have apprehensions related to teaching in schools which have student and staff populations predominately of the opposite race. Three hypotheses were formulated in order to investigate the problem. Data were collected via a questionnaire which was administered to 2,250 teachers. The selected apprehensions were tabulated, and the scores were tested utilizing the chi-square test for independence. The probabilities for the events were reported at the 0.01 level. The findings indicated that both black and white teachers were apprehensive about teaching in schools with populations predominately of the opposite race. The data further revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in the choice of descriptive words used by black and white respondents to identify individuals of the opposite racial groups that they would be most willing to associate with. Further analysis of the data suggests that blacks as a group were more apprehensive about their relationships in the school setting with members of the opposite racial group. / Ed. D.

The purpose of this study was to explore and document the perspectives of the Black students who were the first to desegregate Roanoke, Virginia, schools during the 1960-1961 school year. In September of 1960, nine Black students were chosen to desegregate formerly all-White schools in Roanoke. The stories of these students have not been comprehensively researched or formally recorded. Their perspectives on the desegregation process provide valuable insight to add to the body of knowledge about the desegregation period. A review of the history of Black education on the national, state, and local levels, as well as a brief history of the City of Roanoke are provided as historical context for the desegregation of schools in Roanoke. A review of the literature documenting first person accounts from other Black students who went through the desegregation experience revealed only a small number of formally recorded accounts. Examining the perspectives of Black students who were among the first to desegregate schools can provide a critical perspective on both desegregation and the larger societal issue of integration. The effects of the desegregation experience on students have received little attention. Recording and analyzing their stories provides an important piece of the desegregation record that is currently lacking. The researcher conducted a qualitative case study incorporating interviews of the students, a review of newspaper articles and documents from the time period, and any artifacts and documents that the participants had retained from the time period. Five common themes emerged from the interviews with participants. They were: (a) rejection by White and Black peers, (b) family support, (c) preparation for life in a desegregated society, (d) a sense of loss related to not attending all-Black schools, and (e) the reflective meaning each participant made of their experience. These themes were similar to the experiences of other Black students who desegregated schools. These themes were also similar to themes found in the literature dealing with the value of all-Black schools. Continued documentation of the perspectives of Black students who desegregated schools is one of the recommendations of the study. / Ph. D.

Brown is often regarded among the most monumental decisions ever rendered by the United States Supreme Court. Its legacy includes a body of case law affecting the shape and meaning of school desegregation over the past fifty years. However, school desegregation and the transition of Brown from courtroom jurisprudence to a manifestation of equal educational opportunities for African American and other minority students has not been characterized by steady, forward progress. This research project is about Brown’s evolutionary transition vis-à-vis public school desegregation law. A comprehensive overview of the Brown v. Board of Education litigation and its affect on school desegregation is provided. The timeframe for the study primarily covers the years following the Brown decisions from 1954 to 2002. However, the study also emphasizes the legal and historical details that led to Brown. In addition, a review is included of the June 2003 United States Supreme Court decisions in the University of Michigan cases that addressed affirmative action issues, which is relative to Brown. The body of case law and information associated with Brown was immense. Therefore, specific litigation was selected for review and analysis. The basis for litigation selection is discussed in each chapter relative to the section’s content. The litigation analysis is addressed from four perspectives: the Historical Perspective: "Separate-But-Equal" Era, the Brown Decisions, the Seminal Desegregation Era, and the Contemporary Desegregation Era. Since the research was so extensive, it is beyond the study’s scope to exhaust all avenues of school desegregation case law in Brown’s progeny. Brown offered the promise and hope of better educational opportunities for African American children in the United States. In the face of contemporary measures that consistently show achievement for African American children lagging behind that of their white and Asian counterparts, this project was motivated by a desire to explore the course of action, from a legal perspective, that resulted in unfulfilled expectations of Brown. / Ph. D.

Master of Arts / Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work / W. Richard Goe / This case-study focuses on the desegregation processes that occurred in USD 501 in Topeka, Kan. USD 501 is the Topeka public school district addressed by the Supreme Court in the infamous Brown v. Board of Education, which is the case credited with ending the legal racial segregation of children in public schools. The Supreme Court ordered the subsequent disbandment of all racial segregation in public school districts in1955. However, USD 501 did not successfully carry out this order for nearly forty years. Therefore, the primary question of this thesis is, "Why was there a forty year delay in the creation of desegregation plan in USD 501?" This research question is, however, a multipart question and therefore required answering the following associated questions: 1) what is the definition of desegregation?; 2) What does desegregation look like?; and 3) did desegregation occur in USD 501? Through the use of sociological theories and court records, I was able to answer each of the associated questions, as well as discern the answer the main thesis question. The reason for the forty year delay in the development and implementation had a two part answer: 1) socially reproductive action was often used to reinforce social and spatial inequalities in Topeka itself, which maintained the racial segregation of USD 501 schools; and 2) the expectations of the desegregation process changed over time. This led to the second of the main thesis questions which was, " How was desegregation originally defined in the Brown case, how is it understood currently, and how did its definition change over time?" I found that the new expectations of desegregation were tied to a 1968 Supreme Court case, which established the Green Codes for the desegregation process. The Green Codes structured the court's assessment of desegregating districts, which made identifying informal actions that promote segregation more identifiable. Then I examined the effect of the desegregation plan's inception in USD 501. A correlation was found between the desegregation plan's inception and declining white enrollment, which lasts approximately thirteen years. I then summarize the research findings, and use sociological theory to support the conclusions.

The recent decision handed down by the U.S. Supreme Court in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007) has forced school districts to begin thinking of new ways to integrate their schools without relying on race as the single factor in their assignment plans. While some school districts already have begun to implement race-neutral student assignments, others are just beginning the process and are looking to plans that have been able to maintain diversity despite the new limitations being placed on them. In order to learn more about what factors are most critical in shaping racial and socioeconomic diversity in school districts, I examined the interaction between the design and implementation of 3 different integration plans that rely on voluntary choice and socioeconomic status (SES). I wanted to determine whether these factors had any effect on the way such integration plans are employed and ultimately on school-level diversity outcomes. I was also interested in learning how the local sociopolitical context influenced outcomes. I used qualitative case methodology, which allowed me to focus on the processes and meanings behind the plans. I conducted a historical analysis of desegregation on each of the school districts and used data collected from documents and interviews to analyze how design interacted with context to produce particular outcomes. I situated my analysis in the education policy implementation literature as it tells us that people and places play integral roles in how a policy is designed, adopted, and implemented. The ultimate success of a policy is heavily influenced by the actors involved in the creation of the policy as well as the context in which the policy is implemented. I found that the success of these plans depends heavily on their context. Urban school districts that have high poverty levels and few White students have a difficult time maintaining diversity, whereas school districts that incorporate the city and surrounding suburbs are more likely to maintain diversity because White, middle-class families do not have the same opportunity to flee the district. Furthermore, school districts that use geographic zoning and regulated choice are able to maintain higher levels of diversity. Support from the community and local policymakers also can play a role in the success of integration plans. The findings suggest that geographic and political contexts matter in the shaping and adoption of integration plans based on voluntary choice and SES. I offer suggestions to maintain integration given the local sociopolitical context of the school districts. / text

Leadership at the district level is a contributing factor to student achievement and the overall success of individual schools and school districts. However, with respect to leading equity-oriented transformations, most research has centered on the work of leaders and administrators at the school-building level. Considering their direct involvement in formulating and executing equity-framed change initiatives, understanding the role and influence of central office-based leaders is paramount. Designed as an instrumental case study, the process of executing a court-ordered desegregation plan was utilized to assist in deepening the understanding of the role of school district-based leadership as it relates to developing and implementing policies that seek to decrease and/or eliminate vestiges of racial and social injustices as well as evoke system-wide transformations. This case study was framed by a broad scope of scholarly work on change leadership and transformative practices. A collection of semi-structured interviews, guided by Seidman’s (2006) three-interview series structure, served as the primary source of data. With respect to district-level leadership, the data gathered from this study identifies conditions, structures, and behaviors that support and hinder equity-driven change and inclusive practices within schooling. Moreover, the findings indicate a need to focus on building capacity for equity-oriented transformations at the central office, managing multi-dimensional resistance within a social justice context, and empowering community groups to support and/or drive systemic change efforts within the educational setting. Additionally, recommendations aimed to extend and focus areas of practice, policy, and future research are presented.

This dissertation tells the local history of one of Georgia’s earliest all-black accredited high schools, Athens High and Industrial School/Burney-Harris High School (AHIS/BHHS), in an attempt to add to the collective history of the all-black segregated school. The study investigated the Clarke County, Georgia school system, pre- and post- Brown, focusing on the uncovered themes within new research interpretations - the value within the segregated schools, networks among the all-black segregated schools, the costs and consequences of desegregation, and the displacement of black educators. Within the history of black education there is a recent effort to present alternative interpretations concerning the once stigmatized segregated school. Research now focuses on the value that was placed on black segregated schools by the local community, highlighting the schools’ strong leadership, caring teachers, academic curriculum and extra-curricular activities, and supportive community and parents. These factors were researched within AHIS/BHHS and found to have been substantial in assessing value to the school. Additionally, the study researched the involvement of H.T. Edwards, principal of AHIS/BHHS, within the national, state, and local networks determining that through its black principal, professional education associations, and professional development, AHIS/BHHS was a part of a system of networks among black schools. Reflecting the larger research indicating a loss within the black community upon desegregation, my study demonstrated this loss within the black community of Athens as a result of the closing of AHIS/BHHS and the displacement of its educators. The study employed historical methods such as archival data and oral histories.