L’Océan Arctique est l’un des environnements où l’on retrouve les plus fortes variations saisonnières au monde. L’un des outils utilisés pour représenter et comprendre de tels environnements variables sont les modèles biogéochimiques. Néanmoins, ces modèles n’ont qu’une représentation sommaire des espèces métazoaires, telles que les copépodes, qui représentent pourtant jusqu’à 80% de la biomasse totale du zooplancton arctique. De plus, les espèces de copépodes composant la majorité de cette biomasse ont développé un mécanisme leur permettant de bénéficier au maximum de la production primaire concentrée l’été en Arctique, la diapause. Ce mécanisme a été documenté comme ayant un impact direct sur la phénologie des autres espèces de la communauté planctonique, ainsi que sur la biogéochimie de leur environnement. Ce projet de recherche vise à combler le manque de représentation de ce trait en l’incluant au sein d’un modèle biogéochimique dans le contexte particulier de l’Arctique représenté par des données environnementales prélevées dans le Gulf d’Amundsen. Nos résultats démontrent que sans le trait de la diapause, le modèle ne permettait pas la survie d’espèces de métazoaires. Grâce à l’utilisation de relations allométriques ainsi qu’au mécanisme de sélection naturel présent dans le modèle utilisé, nous observons qu’une seule espèce de métazoaire peut présenter une dynamique de diapause comparable à celles retrouvées dans la zone d’étude. Nous discutons ensuite de l’importance que ce trait peut avoir sur la phénologie des espèces planctoniques en raison de cascades impliquant des chaines trophiques courtes. Finalement, l’ajout d’une migration saisonnière dans le modèle actuel permettra à de futurs projets de recherches d’étudier les deux mécanismes biogoéchimiques liés à la diapause que sont la pompe à lipide ainsi que le « court-circuit lipidique » (lipid shunt).

La diapause embryonnaire se manifeste par un arrêt réversible du développement embryonnaire durant la période de préimplantation et induit un retard de l’implantation. Chez le vison américain, une diapause embryonnaire obligatoire caractérise chaque gestation. Si les mécanismes de contrôle de la diapause embryonnaire obligatoire chez cette espèce sont bien connus, le rôle utérin impliqué dans la réactivation de l’embryon demeure, quant à lui, encore inconnu. Le sujet de ce doctorat a consisté dans un premier temps à explorer l’environnement utérin à la sortie de la diapause embryonnaire afin de caractériser, dans un deuxième temps, les principaux acteurs utérins qui provoquent la réactivation de l’embryon. Nous avons effectué une analyse du transcriptome utérin à l’émergence de la diapause embryonnaire ce qui a permis de construire une librairie de 123 séquences d’ADNc utérines différentiellement exprimées à la réactivation de l’embryon et homologues à des séquences de gènes connues chez d’autres espèces. Ces gènes sont impliqués dans la régulation du métabolisme (25 %), de l’expression génique (21 %), de la transduction de signal (15 %), du cycle cellulaire (15 %), du transport (10 %) et de la structure cellulaire (9 %), reflétant ainsi d’importantes modifications utérines à la réactivation embryonnaire. Nous avons validé l’expression différentielle de dix gènes ainsi identifiés : GDF3 (growth and differentiation 3), ALCAM (activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule), ADIPOR1 (adiponectin receptor 1), HMGN1 (high mobility group N1), TXNL1 (thioredoxin like 1), TGM2 (tissue transglutaminase 2), SPARC (secreted protein acidic rich in cystein), et trois gènes codant pour AZIN1 (antizyme inhibitor 1), ODC1 (ornithine decarboxylase 1) et SAT1 (spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase), des enzymes impliquées dans la biosynthèse des polyamines. Le patron de l’expression spatio-temporel de SPARC et d’HMGN1 illustrent spécifiquement un remodelage tissulaire et de la chromatine au niveau utérin à la sortie de la diapause embryonnaire. Ayant mesuré une augmentation des concentrations utérines en polyamines à la reprise du développement embryonnaire, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que les polyamines seraient impliquées dans les événements menant à la sortie de la diapause. L’inhibition de la biosynthèse des polyamines par un traitement à l’ α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) a provoqué une diminution significative de la proliferation cellulaire dans les embryons à la réactivation, un retard du moment de l’implantation, mais n’a pas affecté le succès de la reproduction. De manière similaire, nous avons induit un état de dormance dans les cellules de trophoblaste de vison en présence DFMO dans le milieu de culture, et constaté que cet état était réversible. En conclusion, cette étude a non seulement ouvert de nouveaux horizons quant à la compréhension du rôle utérin dans les événements menant à la sortie de la diapause embryonnaire, mais a démontré pour la première fois, l’existence de facteurs utérins indispensables à la réactivation de l’embryon: les polyamines. / Embryonic diapause is characterized by a reversible arrest of blastocyst development prior to implantation and delay in implantation. In the American mink, embryonic diapause is a characteristic of each gestation. Although the mechanisms which control obligate embryonic diapause of this species are well known, the role of the uterus involved in blastocyst reactivation remains elusive. The subject of this doctoral research consisted first in exploring the uterine environment at the emergence of embryonic diapause in order to subsequently determine, the main factors in the uterus that provoke reactivation of the embryo. We have undertaken an analysis of the uterine transcriptome at the emergence of embryonic diapause which has enabled us to set up a library of 123 cDNA uterine sequences differentially expressed at blastocyst reactivation, and homologue gene sequences known in other species. Twenty-five percent of these genes are implicated in genetic expression, 15 % in cell signal transduction, 15 % in cell cycle, 10 % in transport and 9 % in cell structure. All of them reflect significant uterine modifications at blastocyst reactivation. We have validated differential expression of ten genes, identified as: GDF3 (growth and differentiation 3), ALCAM (activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule), ADIPOR1 (adiponectin receptor 1), HMGN1 (high mobility group N1), TXNL1 (thioredoxine like 1), TGM2 (tissue transglutaminase 2), SPARC (secreted protein acidic rich in cystein), and three genes encoding for AZIN1 (antizyme inhibitor 1), ODC1 (ornithine decarboxylase 1) and SAT1 (spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase), which are enzymes implicated in polyamine biosynthesis. The spatio-temporal expression patterns of SPARC and HMGN1 illustrate tissue and chromatin remodelling in the uterus at the termination of embryonic diapause. Having measured an increase in concentration of polyamines in the uterus at the resumption of blastocyst development, we have hypothetized that polyamines are implicated in the emergence of blastocysts from diapause. We inhibited polyamine biosynthesis in pregnant mink females during early blastocyst reactivation. The inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis through treatment with α-difluoromehtylornithine (DFMO) provoked a major reduction in cell proliferation in blastocysts at reactivation and a delay in the timing of implantation, but did not affect the success of reproduction. Similarly, we induced a reversible dormant state in cultured mink trophoblast cells traited with DFMO. To conclude, not only are results of this study a breakthrough in the understanding of the role of the uterus in stimulating at the emergence of blastocysts from embryonic diapause, but also, for the very first time, they indicate the existence of uterine factors, the polyamines, that are responsible for blastocysts reactivation.

La diapause embryonnaire se manifeste par un arrêt réversible du développement embryonnaire durant la période de préimplantation et induit un retard de l’implantation. Chez le vison américain, une diapause embryonnaire obligatoire caractérise chaque gestation. Si les mécanismes de contrôle de la diapause embryonnaire obligatoire chez cette espèce sont bien connus, le rôle utérin impliqué dans la réactivation de l’embryon demeure, quant à lui, encore inconnu. Le sujet de ce doctorat a consisté dans un premier temps à explorer l’environnement utérin à la sortie de la diapause embryonnaire afin de caractériser, dans un deuxième temps, les principaux acteurs utérins qui provoquent la réactivation de l’embryon. Nous avons effectué une analyse du transcriptome utérin à l’émergence de la diapause embryonnaire ce qui a permis de construire une librairie de 123 séquences d’ADNc utérines différentiellement exprimées à la réactivation de l’embryon et homologues à des séquences de gènes connues chez d’autres espèces. Ces gènes sont impliqués dans la régulation du métabolisme (25 %), de l’expression génique (21 %), de la transduction de signal (15 %), du cycle cellulaire (15 %), du transport (10 %) et de la structure cellulaire (9 %), reflétant ainsi d’importantes modifications utérines à la réactivation embryonnaire. Nous avons validé l’expression différentielle de dix gènes ainsi identifiés : GDF3 (growth and differentiation 3), ALCAM (activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule), ADIPOR1 (adiponectin receptor 1), HMGN1 (high mobility group N1), TXNL1 (thioredoxin like 1), TGM2 (tissue transglutaminase 2), SPARC (secreted protein acidic rich in cystein), et trois gènes codant pour AZIN1 (antizyme inhibitor 1), ODC1 (ornithine decarboxylase 1) et SAT1 (spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase), des enzymes impliquées dans la biosynthèse des polyamines. Le patron de l’expression spatio-temporel de SPARC et d’HMGN1 illustrent spécifiquement un remodelage tissulaire et de la chromatine au niveau utérin à la sortie de la diapause embryonnaire. Ayant mesuré une augmentation des concentrations utérines en polyamines à la reprise du développement embryonnaire, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que les polyamines seraient impliquées dans les événements menant à la sortie de la diapause. L’inhibition de la biosynthèse des polyamines par un traitement à l’ α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) a provoqué une diminution significative de la proliferation cellulaire dans les embryons à la réactivation, un retard du moment de l’implantation, mais n’a pas affecté le succès de la reproduction. De manière similaire, nous avons induit un état de dormance dans les cellules de trophoblaste de vison en présence DFMO dans le milieu de culture, et constaté que cet état était réversible. En conclusion, cette étude a non seulement ouvert de nouveaux horizons quant à la compréhension du rôle utérin dans les événements menant à la sortie de la diapause embryonnaire, mais a démontré pour la première fois, l’existence de facteurs utérins indispensables à la réactivation de l’embryon: les polyamines. / Embryonic diapause is characterized by a reversible arrest of blastocyst development prior to implantation and delay in implantation. In the American mink, embryonic diapause is a characteristic of each gestation. Although the mechanisms which control obligate embryonic diapause of this species are well known, the role of the uterus involved in blastocyst reactivation remains elusive. The subject of this doctoral research consisted first in exploring the uterine environment at the emergence of embryonic diapause in order to subsequently determine, the main factors in the uterus that provoke reactivation of the embryo. We have undertaken an analysis of the uterine transcriptome at the emergence of embryonic diapause which has enabled us to set up a library of 123 cDNA uterine sequences differentially expressed at blastocyst reactivation, and homologue gene sequences known in other species. Twenty-five percent of these genes are implicated in genetic expression, 15 % in cell signal transduction, 15 % in cell cycle, 10 % in transport and 9 % in cell structure. All of them reflect significant uterine modifications at blastocyst reactivation. We have validated differential expression of ten genes, identified as: GDF3 (growth and differentiation 3), ALCAM (activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule), ADIPOR1 (adiponectin receptor 1), HMGN1 (high mobility group N1), TXNL1 (thioredoxine like 1), TGM2 (tissue transglutaminase 2), SPARC (secreted protein acidic rich in cystein), and three genes encoding for AZIN1 (antizyme inhibitor 1), ODC1 (ornithine decarboxylase 1) and SAT1 (spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase), which are enzymes implicated in polyamine biosynthesis. The spatio-temporal expression patterns of SPARC and HMGN1 illustrate tissue and chromatin remodelling in the uterus at the termination of embryonic diapause. Having measured an increase in concentration of polyamines in the uterus at the resumption of blastocyst development, we have hypothetized that polyamines are implicated in the emergence of blastocysts from diapause. We inhibited polyamine biosynthesis in pregnant mink females during early blastocyst reactivation. The inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis through treatment with α-difluoromehtylornithine (DFMO) provoked a major reduction in cell proliferation in blastocysts at reactivation and a delay in the timing of implantation, but did not affect the success of reproduction. Similarly, we induced a reversible dormant state in cultured mink trophoblast cells traited with DFMO. To conclude, not only are results of this study a breakthrough in the understanding of the role of the uterus in stimulating at the emergence of blastocysts from embryonic diapause, but also, for the very first time, they indicate the existence of uterine factors, the polyamines, that are responsible for blastocysts reactivation.

Les causes évolutives de certaines formes de vie en groupe sont bien identifiées mais pas celles des agrégations de diapause des arthropodes (rassemblements monospécifiques d'adultes dans des sites à localisation constante). Dans cette thèse, j'ai testé si, selon l'hypothèse du lek caché, les arthropodes se rassemblent pour trouver leurs partenaires sexuels chez la coccinelle Hippodamia undecimnotata. J'ai montré que les coccinelles se rassemblent dans des endroits avec un repère proéminent et où le risque de pesticides est faible, puis que les conditions abiotiques dans les sites sont défavorables à la survie des coccinelles. Ensuite, j'ai mis en évidence l'occurrence de nombreux accouplements dans les sites d'agrégation. Enfin, j'ai montré que ces accouplements sont peu coûteux en énergie pour les femelles, qui conservent de l'énergie pour les comportements post-agrégation. Cette thèse atteste que les agrégations de diapause font partie du système de reproduction des arthropodes. / The evolutionary significance of some kinds of group living are well-known, some others such as the diapause aggregations remain poorly known although widespread. In this thesis, I tested if the arthropods form diapause aggregations to find their mates according to the hidden lek hypothesis with the ladybird Hippodamia undecimnotata. By using a Species Distribution Model, I showed that ladybirds aggregate in places with a prominent object and where the risk of being sprayed by pesticides is low. Then, I highlighted that abiotic conditions are unfavourable to ladybirds' survival. In a third part, I found that mating is widespread activity in the aggregation sites. Finally, I showed that energetic costs linked to mating are low, and thus allow the ladybirds to disperse and display post aggregations behaviour. This thesis shows that the diapause aggregations are part of the mating system of the arthropods and that sexual selection can be a driver of the evolution of diapause aggregations.

Les relations complexes qui unissent les insectes phytophages et les plantes peuvent être étudiées par des approches interdisciplinaires à diverses échelles. Ces études peuvent avoir un intérêt appliqué, dans l'agriculture notamment. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons mené une étude interdisciplinaire sur la biologie de la cécidomyie des fleurs du manguier, Procontarinia mangiferae (Felt) (Diptera : Cecidomyiidae), un bio-agresseur monophage et invasif responsable de dégâts économiques majeurs dans plusieurs zones de production du monde. L'objectif était d'améliorer les connaissances sur la biologie de cette espèce à l'île de la Réunion : (1) en évaluant sa diversité génétique et les facteurs écologiques et biologiques qui peuvent expliquer la structuration génétique de ses populations ; (2) en étudiant en milieu naturel ou contrôlé les caractéristiques de sa diapause, qui lui permettent de maintenir des populations d'une saison de floraison à la suivante ; (3) en étudiant par modélisation la dispersion des femelles dans un verger lors de sa colonisation, en prenant en compte les capacités de vol et la distribution spatiale et temporelle des stades sensibles du manguier au sein du verger. Les résultats ont montré que l'espèce P. mangiferae se reproduisait à la fois sur les inflorescences et sur les jeunes feuilles, qu'elle était présente toute l'année et sur tous les sites échantillonnés sur l'île, quelles que soient les conditions culturales ou climatiques. Ses populations sont apparues structurées en deux clusters sympatriques, dont un était plus fréquent dans la zone de culture du manguier. Ensuite, nous avons prouvé l'existence d'une diapause facultative induite toute l’année, avec cependant un taux d'induction de diapause supérieur en été. Cette diapause du troisième stade larvaire se déroule dans le sol et dure entre six semaines et plus d'un an. Les températures fraiches déclenchent les émergences des individus en diapause et permettent de synchroniser l'émergence des adultes avec la période de floraison du manguier. Enfin, nous avons montré que des femelles immigrantes étaient capables de coloniser l'ensemble des arbres d'un verger. Le vol d'arrivée des femelles dans le verger et le vol actif au sein du verger se sont avérés influencés respectivement par l'abondance et par l'attractivité de la ressource. Les connaissances obtenues sur la biologie de P. mangiferae et sur ses relations avec le manguier ouvrent des pistes pour le développement de stratégies de gestion agroécologique de ce bio-agresseur. / Phytophagous insects and plants are linked by complex relationships. Insect-plant interaction researches involve several biological disciplines at different levels of analysis. These insect–plant relationships are of crucial importance from an applied point of view, notably for agriculture. In this work, an interdisciplinary approach has been used to study on the mango blossom gall midge, Procontarinia mangiferae (Felt) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), an invasive insect pest specific to mango causing major economic damages worldwide. The objective was to improve our knowledge of the biology of this species in the subtropical Reunion Island (i) by describing its genetic diversity and investigate the ecological and biological determinants of the genetic structure of its populations, (ii) by carrying out field and controlled experiments to understand the diapause strategies involved in maintaining populations from one flowering season to the next one, (iii) by modeling the arrival and dispersion of females within an orchard in relation with their flight capacity and with the spatial and temporal distribution of the mango susceptible resources. The results showed that the single species P. mangiferae, feeding on both inflorescences and young leaves, was present all year round and in all the sampled sites on the island, regardless of the climatic and cultural conditions. Populations in Reunion Island appeared structured into two clusters in sympatry, one cluster being more frequent in the cultivated mango area. Secondly, we demonstrated the occurrence of facultative diapause all year round, with the highest rate of diapause observed in summer. The diapause allowed a developmental arrest at the 3rd larval instar in the soil, lasting between six weeks to more than one year. The decrease of temperature at the beginning of winter triggered off the emergence of diapausing individuals and synchronized adult emergence with the mango flowering period. Thirdly, non-native female gall midges were able to colonize all the trees of an orchard. Their arrival flight and trivial flight were oriented by the abundance and by the attractiveness of the mango resources, respectively. The knowledge obtained on the biological cycle of P. mangiferae and on its relationships with the mango tree should be useful to develop new agroecological pest management strategies.

Zooplankton are the major primary consumers in pelagic ecosystems, providing the principal pathway for energy transfer from primary production to higher trophic levels. The marine copepod Calanus finmarchicus is an important component of the pelagic food web in the North Atlantic and peripheral ecosystems, and forms an essential dietary component of a number of commercially important fish. As part of its life cycle, many C. finmarchicus overwinter in a diapause phase (a dormant overwintering phase where development is suppressed in adaptation to the seasonal food supply) at depths of 500 to 2000 m, but little is known about the triggers that initiate and terminate diapause, or the internal processes associated with these triggers. Understanding these processes is important, given that subtle changes in the environmental conditions which may affect diapause could have consequences for the entire Calanus-based ecosystem. In this study I took advantage of relatively easy access to a deep (> 100 m), isolated population of C. finmarchicus in Loch Etive (a sea loch on the west coast of Scotland) to sample Calanus finmarchicus monthly between April 2006 and June 2007 and measure lipid dynamics and gene expression associated with diapause. Chapter 1 of this thesis provides a general introduction to diapause and Calanus finmarchicus, Chapter 2 reports on the population of C. finmarchicus in Loch Etive, Chapter 3 reports changes in the lipid class and fatty acid composition of individual copepods, Chapter 4 reports on differential gene expression between diapausing and active C. finmarchicus and Chapter 5 provides a general discussion and puts this research into context. This study provides some initial insight into possible gene expression patterns, but further work is needed to attribute specific gene expression patterns with initiation and termination of diapause.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

A diapausa comportamental em carrapatos é caracterizada pela perda temporária da agressividade do indivíduo, tendo como conseqüência o prolongamento do período sem alimentação, sendo detectada em larvas de Amblyomma cajennense. Esta espécie destaca-se como principal vetor da Febre Maculosa no Sudeste brasileiro. Este estudo objetivou avaliar os efeitos do fotoperíodo e da temperatura na regulação da diapausa comportamental em larvas não-alimentadas de A. cajennense. Para isso, fêmeas ingurgitadas foram obtidas de eqüinos naturalmente infestados de Janeiro à Fevereiro de 2005 e 2006. No laboratório, cada grupo experimental foi composto por oito fêmeas ingurgitadas colocadas em vaso contendo capim braquiária (Brachiaria decumbens). Cada vaso foi exposto a uma condição de temperatura e fotoperíodo dentro de incubadoras B.O.D. (Marconi MA 402). A fotofase foi estabelecida por 4 lâmpadas (Philips TLT 75RS Extra luz do dia 20w) e a escotofase pela ausência total de luz. Os parâmetros biológicos observados foram período de pré-postura, incubação dos ovos, de permanência das larvas debaixo do capim e de presença de larvas na ponta do capim (comportamento de busca pelo hospedeiro). Paralelamente, verificou-se o poder infestante de larvas em diapausa para frangos (Gallus gallus), em comparação com larvas em não diapausa. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que, sob variação de fotoperíodo com temperatura constante de 25oC, a duração do intervalo de pré-postura e de incubação dos ovos foi semelhante em todos os grupos experimentais (1 a 2 semanas para período de pré-postura e 5 semanas para período de incubação dos ovos). Observou-se que a combinação de fotoperíodo 14:10 (claro:escuro) induziu a diapausa, sendo que o fotoperíodo de 12:12 ou 10:14 determinaram o término da diapausa. Em outras combinações de fotoperíodo, onde larvas estiveram no fotoperíodo de 12:12 ou 10:14 desde a eclosão, a aglomeração nas pontas do capim ocorreu dentro das primeiras semanas de vida das larvas. Larvas mantidas em fotoperíodo 12:12 e 10:14 não entraram em dormência e larvas mantidas em condição de fotoperíodo de 14:10 permaneceram no solo por tempo maior que as outras. No entanto, a diminuição da temperatura de 25 para 15oC, no fotoperíodo constante de 14:10, induziu o término da diapausa. Em todos os experimentos realizados sob fotoperíodo de 10:14, nenhum dos regimes de temperatura foi eficiente para induzir a diapausa. Houve diferença no intervalo de incubação dos ovos entre grupos experimentais com temperatura de 25 e 20oC. Não houve diferenças significantes (P > 0,05) entre proporções de larvas em diapausa e em não diapausa que se ingurgitaram nos frangos, embora larvas em diapausa apresentaram período parasitário significativamente mais longo (P < 0,05). Conclui-se que a diapausa em larvas de A. cajennense é induzida somente se a condição de fotoperíodo estiver com maior número de horas de claro (14:10) durante a eclosão das larvas. Temperaturas de 20 ou 25oC não são capazes de induzir a diapausa, quando mantidas em fotoperíodo 12:12 ou 10:14. O término da diapausa é desencadeado tanto pela mudança de fotoperíodo (14:10 para 12:12 ou 10:14) como pela diminuição da temperatura de 25 para 15oC. / Behavioral diapause in ticks is characterized by the temporary loss of aggressiveness, and consequently, to the extension of the starvation period, as recently detected in Amblyomma cajennense larvae. This species is the main vector of spotted fever in southeastern Brazil. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of photoperiod and temperature on the regulation of behavioral diapause of A. cajennense unfed larvae. For this purpose, engorged females were obtained from horses naturally infested from January to February in each of the years 2005 and 2006. In the laboratory, each experimental group was composed by eight engorged females, which were placed in a grass plot composed by the grass Brachiaria decumbens, held in a small basket (40 cm diameter). Each plot was exposed to a particular condition of temperature and photoperiod within a BOD incubator (Marconi MA 402). Photoperiod was provided by 4 lamps (Philips TLT 75RS 20w) and scotophase by total darkness. Evaluated tick biological parameters were preoviposition and incubation periods, as well as the period of time the larvae remained under the grass after hatching, and the period of time that larvae were seen questing on the top of the grass leaves (host questing). The infestation capacity of diapause larvae to feed on chickens (Gallus gallus) was compared to larvae without being in diapause. The results showed that under variation of photoperiod and constant temperature of 25oC, the duration of preoviposition and incubation periods were similar in all the experimental groups (1 to 2 weeks to preoviposition and 5 weeks for egg incubation). Photoperiod 14:10 (light: dark) induced recently hatched larvae to enter diapause, whereas photoperiod 12:12 or 10:14 determined the end of diapause. In other combinations of photoperiod, where larvae were in photoperiod 12:12 or 10:14 from the eclosion, formation of larval clusters on the top of grass leaves occurred within the first weeks after larval eclosion. Larvae kept in photoperiod 12:12 and 10:14 did not enter in dormancy, whereas larvae maintained in photoperiod 14:10 since eclosion remained in the soil under the grass for longer periods. However, the decrease in temperature from 25 to 15oC under constant photoperiod of 14:10 triggered the end of diapause. In all experiments performed under photoperiod of 10:14, none of the temperature regimes was effective to induce diapause. There were different incubation periods between experimental groups held at 25 and 20oC. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between the proportions of diapause and non-diapause larvae that engorged on chickens, although the period of parasitism of larvae in diapause was significantly longer (P < 0.05). As conclusions for the present study, diapause in A. cajennense larvae is induced only if the condition of photoperiod is with more hours of light (14:10) during larval eclosion. Temperatures of 20 or 25oC are not able to induce diapause, when kept in photoperiod 12:12 or 10:14. The end of diapause is triggered both by the change in photoperiod (14:10 to 12:12 or 10:14) and the decrease in temperature from 25 to 15oC.

The objective of this study was to identify genes that are differentially regulated during diapause when compared with nondiapausing pupae in Sarcophaga crassipalpis. The results of a Suppression Subtractive Hybridization procedure was used to indentify genes that are differentially regulated in both diapause and nondiapausing states while suppressing genes that are common to both states. Randomly picked colonies from both subtractive libraries were isolated and the inserts sequenced. The sequences were analyzed using the bioinformatics tools NCBI, BlastX, Clustal W, etc. Out of 384 clones, 59 genes were found to be upregulated during diapause and 37 genes were found to be upregulated during a nondiapause pupal stage, no genes were found to be expressed commonly in both the diapause and nondiapause constructed libraries.

The Annual Killifish, Austrofundulus limnaeus, survives the seasonal drying of their pond habitat in the form of embryos entering diapause midway through development. The diapause trajectory is one of two developmental phenotypes. Alternatively, individuals can "escape" entry into diapause and develop continuously until hatching. The alternative phenotypes of A. limnaeus are a form of developmental plasticity that provides this species with a physiological adaption for surviving stressful environments. The developmental trajectory of an embryo is not distinguishable morphologically upon fertilization and phenotype is believed to be influenced by maternal provisioning within the egg based on observations of offspring phenotype production. However, incubation temperature may override any such maternal pattern suggesting an environmental influence on the regulation of developmental trajectory. We hypothesize that maternally packaged gene products coordinate the cellular events prior to the maternal-to-zygotic transition (MTZ) that determine developmental trajectory in embryos of A. limnaeus. In addition, we propose that environmentally responsive gene expression after the MTZ can sustain or override any such maternal provisioning. Using high-throughput RNA-sequencing, we have generated transcriptomic profiles of protein-coding messenger RNA and noncoding RNA during development in A. limnaeus. Embryos destined for either the diapause or escape phenotypes display unique expression profiles immediately upon fertilization that support hormone synthesis, well before the stage when phenotypes are morphologically distinct. At stages when the trajectories diverge from one another, differential expression of the vitamin D receptor signaling pathway suggests that vitamin D signaling may be a key regulator of developmental phenotype in this species. These data provide a critical link between maternal and environmental influences on the genetic regulation of phenotypic plasticity. These results will not only impact our understanding of the genetic mechanisms that regulate entrance into diapause, but also provide insight into the epigenetic regulation of gene expression and development. Uncovering genetic mechanisms in a system exhibiting alternative developmental trajectories will elucidate the role of maternal packaging in regulating developmental decisions, and in sustaining metabolic depression during diapause.