Heterogeneous mixtures have the potential to be used as synthetic substrates for antenna applications giving the antenna designer new degrees of freedom to control the permittivity and/or permeability in three dimensions such as by a smooth variation of the density of the inclusions, the height of the substrate and the manufacture the whole antenna system in one process. Electromagnetic, fabrication, environmental, time and cost advantages are potential especially when combined with nano-fabrication techniques. Readily available and cheap materials such as Polyethylene and Copper can be used in creating these heterogeneous materials. These advantages have been further explained in this thesis. In this thesis, the research presented is on canonical, numerical and measurement analysis on heterogeneous mixtures that can be used as substrates for microwave applications. It is hypothesised that heterogeneous mixtures can be used to design bespoke artificial dielectric substrates for say, patch antennas. The canonical equations from published literature describing the effective permittivity, ε_eff and effective permeability, μ_eff of heterogeneous mixtures have been extensively examined and compared with each other. Several simulations of homogenous and heterogeneous media have been carried out and an extraction/inversion algorithm applied to find their ε_eff and μ_eff. Parametric studies have been presented to show how the different variables of the equations and the simulations affect the accuracy of the results. The extracted results from the inversion process showed very good agreement with the known values of the homogenous media. Numerically and canonically computed values of ε_eff and μ_eff of various heterogeneous media were shown to have good agreement. The fabrication techniques used in creating the samples used in this research were examined, along with the different measurement methods used in characterising their electromagnetic properties via simulations and measurements. The challenges faced with these measurement methods were explained including the possible sources of error. Patch antennas were used to investigate how the performance of an antenna may be affected by heterogeneous media with metallic inclusions. The performance of the patch antenna was not inhibited by the presence of the metallic inclusions in close proximity. The patch measurement was also used as a measurement technique in determining the ε_eff of the samples.

La présence de lacunes d’oxygène dans les diélectriques est supposée dégrader les propriétés électriques des transistors « high-k metal gate ». Nous avons donc étudié les possibilités d’une nouvelle méthodologie pour analyser ces défauts dans des couches minces de HfO2. Il s’agit d’utiliser des techniques optimisées pour la caractérisation de nano-dispositifs i.e. la spectroscopie de perte d'énergie des électrons (EELS) en microscopie électronique en transmission et la cathodoluminescence (CL)calibrées par la spectroscopie d’annihilation de positons (PAS). Des films de HfO2 ont été déposés par ALD et PVD sur des substrats de silicium. Pour les besoins du PAS, des couches d’épaisseur (10 à 100nm) supérieure au standard de la nanoélectronique ont été élaborées. D’après leurs analyses par DRX,RBS/NRA, MEB, TEM. Ces couches présentent majoritairement une structure complexe et un excès d’oxygène important. Les résultats PAS dépendent de la technique de dépôt et du traitement thermique.Leur comparaison avec des caractérisations électriques sur les couches les plus minces indique la génération de champs électriques dans la couche, à l’interface avec le substrat et dans le substrat. Ces observations confirment la présence de charges évoquée dans la littérature. Ces études ont permis de mettre au point la méthodologie et les conditions d’acquisition et d’analyse des spectres EELS et CL.Ceux-ci dépendent de la technique de dépôt et du traitement thermique. Cependant la qualité des couches n’a pas permis d’isoler les effets de la stoechiométrie. Ce travail ouvre de nombreuses perspectives pour approfondir la compréhension des phénomènes se déroulant au sein des nano-dispositifs. / The presence of oxygen vacancies in high-k oxides is fore seen to have detrimental effects in high-kmetal gate MOS transistors. To validate this hypothesis, we investigate the possibility of using electron energy loss spectroscopy in an electron transmission microscope (EELS) and the cathodoluminescence(CL) calibrated by the positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS) to analyze these defects in thin HfO2 layers.To develop this methodology, HfO2 films have been deposited both by ALD and PVD on silicon substrates. To make the samples adapted to the PAS depth resolution, the layers thicknesses (10 to100 nm) are higher than those used in microelectronics. According to XRD, RBS/NRA, MEB, TEM results, these layers present a complex structure and a large excess of oxygen.PAS results depend both on the deposition technique and on the heat treatment. They evidence the presence of electric fields in the oxide layer or at the interface with the substrate. Electrical measurements in the thinnest layers, confirm the presence of charges in the oxide layer as already mentioned in the literature. The sign of these charges changes with heat treatment and is in agreement with the PAS results.EELS improved data acquisition has been developed. The EELS and CL spectra have been analyzed using a systematic methodology allowing to extracting characteristic parameters. They depend on the deposition technique and the heat treatment. However, due to the poor quality of the layers, it has not been possible to isolate the effects of the stoichiometry. This work opens many perspectives to improve knowledge on phenomena occurring in devices.

Ce travail de thèse a été consacré à l'étude théorique et numérique de métamatériaux pour la gamme submillimétrique (domaine térahertz), formés de sphères diélectriques présentant des résonances dipolaires de Mie électrique et magnétique, dispersées dans un milieu-hôte. Tout d'abord, les matériaux à utiliser ainsi que les tailles et fraction volumique des sphères permettant l'obtention d'effets de perméabilité ont été précisées. Ensuite, nous avons mené une étude de la polydispersité en taille, mettant en évidence qu'une polydispersité contrôlée pouvait engendrer un élargissement des zones de perméabilité négative ou une zone de perméabilité nulle. Enfin, nous avons étudié le comportement électromagnétique d'assemblages bidisperses de sphères par simulations numériques, et avons procédé à une analyse des modes de Bloch, semblant indiquer l'existence d'une bande d'indice négatif pour des fractions volumiques élevées. / This PhD work was dedicated to the theoretical and numerical study of metamaterials in the terahertz range made of dielectric spheres embedded in a host medium and exhibiting dipolar electric and magnetic Mie resonances. The materials as well as the sizes and the filling fractions of the spheres to use to achieve magnetism in this range of frequency were precised. As a second step, we interested in the size distribution effects on the effective permeability, and showed that a controlled polydispersity can generate a widening of the negative permeability zone with a magnitude close to zero. Finally, we studied the electromagnetic behaviour of bidisperse array of TiO2 spheres with numerical simulations, and a Bloch mode analysis seems to proove the existence of a negative index band for high filling fractions.

Les impulsions laser de quelques cycles optiques offrent des capacités remarquables dans l’interaction laser-matière, en particulier pour l’ablation de matériaux diélectriques. Cependant, la focalisation d’impulsions laser ultracourtes dans l’air implique des limitations naturelles à la propagation linéaire du faisceau en amont de la cible. Dans ce contexte, on étudie l’ablation en surface de matériaux diélectriques lorsqu’ils sont irradiés par une impulsion unique de 12 fs dans l’air, dans des gammes d’intensités situées au-dessous et au-dessus de l’apparition des effets non linéaires dans l’air. En particulier, nous avons établi le lien entre la distribution en fluence en fonction des régimes de focalisation linéaire et non linéaire, et les diamètres des cratères. Nous avons démontré que le profil des cratères peut être prédit malgré les importantes modifications du faisceau laser à haute énergie, pour deux matériaux : la silice fondue et le saphir. Puis, après avoir identifié un régime d’ablation où le faisceau laser n’est pas affecté par ces effets non linéaires, nous avons développé un ensemble de diagnostics permettant de caractériser le plasma crée. Nous avons discuté et comparé les résultats obtenus sur les deux matériaux. En régime d’ablation, il apparaît alors que la densité du plasma est inférieure ou proche de la densité critique. De plus, la pénétration du faisceau est plus importante dans le cas du saphir que de la silice fondue donnant lieu à des cratères plus profonds. / Few-cycle laser pulses offer remarkable capabilities for laser-matter interaction, especially for ablation of transparent dielectric materials. However, focusing ultrashort laser pulses in air implies natural limitations to linear beam propagation prior the target. In this context, we study the surface ablation of dielectrics with single 12 fs laser pulses in air, at intensities below and above the apparition of nonlinear effects in air. In particular, we establish the link between the fluence distribution at the laser focus, spanning from linear- to nonlinear- focusing regimes, and the ablated crater diameters. We demonstrate that the crater profile can be predicted despite significant beam reshaping taking place at high fluence, for fused silica and sapphire. Then, we identify an ablation regime where the beam is still unaffected by nonlinear effects in air. In these conditions, we developed an energy balance experiment, allowing characterizing the created plasma. We discuss and compare the results acquired on fused silica and sapphire. We show that in ablation regime the density plasma is below or nearby the critical density. Moreover, the beam penetration is higher in sapphire than in fused silica, yielding deeper craters.

Foram estudados filmes de oxinitreto de silício obtidos por PECVD à 320°C, a partir da mistura gasosa de N2O+SiH4+He, com diferentes valores de pressão e potência de deposição com o objetivo de produzir boa qualidade de interface deste material com o Si e de obter uma baixa densidade de carga efetiva visando a aplicação desses filmes em dispositivos semicondutores MOS. Os resultados mostraram que com uma pressão de deposição de 0,160 mbar e potências menores que 125 W/cm2 é possível obter um valor de densidade de estados de interface (Dit) de 4x1010 eV-1.cm-2, campo elétrico de ruptura (Ebd) de 13 MV/cm, valores comparáveis ao SiO2 térmico e uma densidade de carga efetiva (Nss) de 4x1011 cm-2. Segundo resultados experimentais esse valor de Nss é o mínimo possível que se pode atingir com a limpeza química utilizada em nosso laboratório. Pode-se dizer que estes são resultados bastante interessantes considerando que se trata de um material obtido por PECVD à baixa temperatura, porém viável para aplicação em dispositivos MOS. Iniciando os estudos com dielétricos de maiores valores de constante dielétrica optamos por estudar filmes de TiOx (k=40-100), obtidos por sputtering reativo, a partir da mistura gasosa de Ar+O2 e utilizando alvo de Ti. Foram fabricados capacitores MOS com estes filmes e obteve-se valores de constante dielétrica que variaram de 40-160. Porém esses materiais ainda apresentavam valores apreciáveis de corrente de fuga que foram minimizadas em ordens de grandeza quando utilizados dielétricos de dupla camada com SiO2 ou SiOxNy (otimizado neste trabalho) na interface, além de se observar uma melhora significativa da qualidade de interface. Utilizando dupla camada dielétrica com filmes de SiOxNy e SiO2, ainda espessos (³ 1nm) para camada intermediária, obteve-se uma constante dielétrica efetiva em torno de 20. Vale ressaltar que os dois filmes SiOxNy e TiOx, conseqüentemente a dupla camada, foram fabricados a baixas temperaturas. / Silicon oxynitride films obtained by the PECVD technique from N2O+SiH4+He gaseous mixtures, at 320°C, with different deposition pressure and RF power were studied intending to improve the interface quality with Si, decreasing the effective charge density and the interface state density in order to utilize them in MOS semiconductor devices. The results showed that with a deposition pressure of 0.160 mbar and a RF power density lower than 125 W/cm2 it is possible to obtain interface state density (Dit) values of 4x1010 eV-1.cm-2, Electrical Breakdown (Ebd) of 13 MV/cm, comparable with the obtained for thermally grown SiO2 , and an effective charge density (Nss) of 4x1011 cm-2. According with experimental results this Nss value is the minimum attainable with our chemical cleaning process. In this way it can be said that these results are very promising, considering that these materials were obtained by PECVD at low temperatures, but still viable for MOS devices application. In order to initiate studies with high dielectrics constant material, TiOx films (k= 40-180), obtained by reactive sputtering through the Ar+O2 gaseous mixture utilizing a Ti target, were chosen. MOS capacitors with these films were fabricated and dielectric constant values varying from 40 to 160 were obtained. However, until now, these materials have presented appreciable leakage current values, which were, minimize by orders of magnitude with the addition of a thin SiO2 or SiOxNy (optimized in this work) layer at the interface were utilized. This thin layer also resulted in a significant improvement of the interface quality. Utilizing double dielectric layer with SiOxNy or SiO2, still thick (³ 1nm) as intermediate layer a dielectric constant value of 20 was obtained. Its important to mention that the SiOxNy and TiOx films, and consequently the double layer, were deposited at low temperatures.

Foram estudados filmes de oxinitreto de silício obtidos por PECVD à 320°C, a partir da mistura gasosa de N2O+SiH4+He, com diferentes valores de pressão e potência de deposição com o objetivo de produzir boa qualidade de interface deste material com o Si e de obter uma baixa densidade de carga efetiva visando a aplicação desses filmes em dispositivos semicondutores MOS. Os resultados mostraram que com uma pressão de deposição de 0,160 mbar e potências menores que 125 W/cm2 é possível obter um valor de densidade de estados de interface (Dit) de 4x1010 eV-1.cm-2, campo elétrico de ruptura (Ebd) de 13 MV/cm, valores comparáveis ao SiO2 térmico e uma densidade de carga efetiva (Nss) de 4x1011 cm-2. Segundo resultados experimentais esse valor de Nss é o mínimo possível que se pode atingir com a limpeza química utilizada em nosso laboratório. Pode-se dizer que estes são resultados bastante interessantes considerando que se trata de um material obtido por PECVD à baixa temperatura, porém viável para aplicação em dispositivos MOS. Iniciando os estudos com dielétricos de maiores valores de constante dielétrica optamos por estudar filmes de TiOx (k=40-100), obtidos por sputtering reativo, a partir da mistura gasosa de Ar+O2 e utilizando alvo de Ti. Foram fabricados capacitores MOS com estes filmes e obteve-se valores de constante dielétrica que variaram de 40-160. Porém esses materiais ainda apresentavam valores apreciáveis de corrente de fuga que foram minimizadas em ordens de grandeza quando utilizados dielétricos de dupla camada com SiO2 ou SiOxNy (otimizado neste trabalho) na interface, além de se observar uma melhora significativa da qualidade de interface. Utilizando dupla camada dielétrica com filmes de SiOxNy e SiO2, ainda espessos (³ 1nm) para camada intermediária, obteve-se uma constante dielétrica efetiva em torno de 20. Vale ressaltar que os dois filmes SiOxNy e TiOx, conseqüentemente a dupla camada, foram fabricados a baixas temperaturas. / Silicon oxynitride films obtained by the PECVD technique from N2O+SiH4+He gaseous mixtures, at 320°C, with different deposition pressure and RF power were studied intending to improve the interface quality with Si, decreasing the effective charge density and the interface state density in order to utilize them in MOS semiconductor devices. The results showed that with a deposition pressure of 0.160 mbar and a RF power density lower than 125 W/cm2 it is possible to obtain interface state density (Dit) values of 4x1010 eV-1.cm-2, Electrical Breakdown (Ebd) of 13 MV/cm, comparable with the obtained for thermally grown SiO2 , and an effective charge density (Nss) of 4x1011 cm-2. According with experimental results this Nss value is the minimum attainable with our chemical cleaning process. In this way it can be said that these results are very promising, considering that these materials were obtained by PECVD at low temperatures, but still viable for MOS devices application. In order to initiate studies with high dielectrics constant material, TiOx films (k= 40-180), obtained by reactive sputtering through the Ar+O2 gaseous mixture utilizing a Ti target, were chosen. MOS capacitors with these films were fabricated and dielectric constant values varying from 40 to 160 were obtained. However, until now, these materials have presented appreciable leakage current values, which were, minimize by orders of magnitude with the addition of a thin SiO2 or SiOxNy (optimized in this work) layer at the interface were utilized. This thin layer also resulted in a significant improvement of the interface quality. Utilizing double dielectric layer with SiOxNy or SiO2, still thick (³ 1nm) as intermediate layer a dielectric constant value of 20 was obtained. Its important to mention that the SiOxNy and TiOx films, and consequently the double layer, were deposited at low temperatures.

O processamento em alta pressão é um método alternativo para a produção de materiais cerâmicos. Neste trabalho, pressões na ordem de 7,7 GPa e 2,5 GPa foram aplicadas em amostras, em diferentes temperaturas, que foram colocadas em uma célula de reação específica, gerando diferentes efeitos na formação de fases. A composição de fases foi analisada por difração de raios X e a evolução microestrutural, associada ao processamento em alta pressão, foi investigada por microscopia eletrônica por varredura em associação com a espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Um analisador de resposta de frequência foi utilizado para obter as curvas ferroelétricas por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. A utilização de alta pressão (2,5 GPa) possibilitou a obtenção de amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 monofásicas com elevada densidade relativa, acima de 93%, após sinterização a uma temperatura de 900 °C. Essa temperatura é inferior às usualmente necessárias para obter alta densificação utilizando métodos convencionais de sinterização. Além disso, as amostras processadas em alta pressão apresentaram uma resposta dielétrica similar às amostras de SrBi2Ta2O9 sinterizadas por processos convencionais em temperaturas acima de 1000 ºC. / High-pressure processing is a very attractive approach for the production of ceramic materials. In this work, pressures about 7.7 GPa and 2.5 GPa were applied in SrBi2Ta2O9 samples at different temperatures placed in a specific reaction cell. X-ray diffraction was used to identify the different phases produced as a function of the processing conditions. The microstructural evolution, associated to the high-pressure processing, was investigated by scanning electron microscopy in association with energy dispersive spectroscopy. Frequency response analysis was used to obtain the ferroelectric curves by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A highly densified (> 93% of theoretical density) single-phase (SrBi2Ta2O9) sample was obtained after processing at 2.5 GPa and 900 ºC. This temperature is lower than those necessary to obtain high densification, when conventional sintering processes are employed. In addition, the samples produced by high pressure processing showed a dielectric response similar to SrBi2Ta2O9 samples sintered by conventional processes at temperatures above 1000 ºC.

<p>The development and implementation of a metal gate technology (alloy, compound, or silicide) into metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) is necessary to extend the life of planar CMOS devices and enable further downscaling. This thesis examines possible metal gate materials for improving the performance of the gate stack and discusses process integration as well as improved electrical and physical measurement methodologies, tested on capacitor structures and transistors. </p><p>By using reactive PVD and gradually increasing the N₂/Ar flow ratio, it was found that the work function (on SiO₂) of the TiN_x and ZrN_x metal systems could be modulated ~0.7 eV from low near nMOS work functions to high pMOS work functions. After high-temperature anneals corresponding to junction activation, both metals systems reached mid-gap work function values. The mechanisms behind the work function changes are explained with XPS data and discussed in terms of metal gradients and Fermi level pinning due to extrinsic interface states.</p><p>A modified scheme for improved Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling is also shown, using degenerately doped silicon substrates. In that case, the work functions of ALD/PVD TaN were accurately determined on both SiO₂ and HfO₂ and benchmarked against IPE (Internal Photoemission) results. KFM (Kelvin Force Microscopy) was also used to physically measure the work functions of PVD TiN and Mo deposited on SiO₂; the results agreed well with <i>C-V</i> and <i>I-V</i> data.</p><p>Finally, an appealing combination of novel materials is demonstrated with ALD TiN/Al₂O₃/HfAlO_x/Al₂O₃/strained-SiGe surface channel pMOS devices. The drive current and transconductance were measured to be 30% higher than the Si reference, clearly demonstrating increased mobility and the absence of polydepletion. Finally, using similarly processed transistors with Al₂O₃ dielectric instead, low-temperature water vapour annealing was shown to improve the device characteristics by reducing the negative charge within the ALD Al₂O₃.</p>

Accurate modeling and simulation of wave propagation in dispersive dielectrics such as water, human tissue and sand, among others, has a variety of applications. For example in medical imaging, electromagnetic waves are used to interrogate human tissue in a non-invasive manner to detect anomalies that could be cancerous. In non-destructive evaluation of materials, such interrogation is used to detect defects in these materials. In this thesis we present the construction and analysis of two novel operator splitting methods for Maxwell's equations in dispersive media of Debye type which are used to model wave propagation in polar materials like water and human tissue. We construct a sequential and a symmetrized operator splitting scheme which are first order, and second order, respectively, accurate in time. Both schemes are second order accurate in space. The operator splitting methods are shown to be unconditionally stable via energy techniques. Their accuracy and stability properties are compared to established schemes like the Yee or FDTD scheme and the Crank-Nicolson scheme. Finally, results of numerical simulations are presented that confirm the theoretical analysis. / Graduation date: 2012 / Access restricted to the OSU Community at author's request from June 20, 2012 - Dec. 20, 2012

The development and implementation of a metal gate technology (alloy, compound, or silicide) into metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) is necessary to extend the life of planar CMOS devices and enable further downscaling. This thesis examines possible metal gate materials for improving the performance of the gate stack and discusses process integration as well as improved electrical and physical measurement methodologies, tested on capacitor structures and transistors. By using reactive PVD and gradually increasing the N2/Ar flow ratio, it was found that the work function (on SiO2) of the TiNx and ZrNx metal systems could be modulated ~0.7 eV from low near nMOS work functions to high pMOS work functions. After high-temperature anneals corresponding to junction activation, both metals systems reached mid-gap work function values. The mechanisms behind the work function changes are explained with XPS data and discussed in terms of metal gradients and Fermi level pinning due to extrinsic interface states. A modified scheme for improved Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling is also shown, using degenerately doped silicon substrates. In that case, the work functions of ALD/PVD TaN were accurately determined on both SiO2 and HfO2 and benchmarked against IPE (Internal Photoemission) results. KFM (Kelvin Force Microscopy) was also used to physically measure the work functions of PVD TiN and Mo deposited on SiO2; the results agreed well with C-V and I-V data. Finally, an appealing combination of novel materials is demonstrated with ALD TiN/Al2O3/HfAlOx/Al2O3/strained-SiGe surface channel pMOS devices. The drive current and transconductance were measured to be 30% higher than the Si reference, clearly demonstrating increased mobility and the absence of polydepletion. Finally, using similarly processed transistors with Al2O3 dielectric instead, low-temperature water vapour annealing was shown to improve the device characteristics by reducing the negative charge within the ALD Al2O3.