The majority of memory research, and research on its cognitive underpinnings has thus far focused on retrospective memory, or memory for things learned or rehearsed in the past. More recently, however, prospective memory, or the memory for future intentions, has become a major area of research. It is theorized that prospective and retrospective memory may both rely on similar constituent parts such as working memory and selective attention; the relationship between these constructs and prospective memory is, however, significantly less clear than for retrospective memory. In this study we sought to further clarify the role that cognitive process play in prospective memory performance using an SEM approach that included monitoring as a mediating variable in addition to focal, non-focal, and time-based prospective memory task condition. Results suggest a monitoring component is important in both focal and non-focal conditions, and that the type of monitoring observed in this study is related primarily to proactive interference, and reflects participants’ ability to disengage from no longer relevant stimuli¬¬¬.

The current situation in South-African education warrants a rethink on how we use our leadership expertise and skills. It is a statistical fact that women are under-represented in positions of educational leadership in our schools. Society needs to acknowledge that all our resources must be utilised: women being one of our major resources in the field of education. Experiences from this study show that there are many intrinsic and extrinsic barriers to the progress of women in educational management. These barriers amount to beliefs, assumptions stereotypes, socialisation, organisational constraints and value systems. These beliefs and assumptions have cast women into teaching roles rather than educational leadership roles. The cxpenences of the women principals who were involved in this study suggest that women have the capacity to manage effective schools. Furthermore, these women have the willingness and desire to involve all stakeholders in the process of education. The data indicates that it may be worthwhile to start professional and educational training programmes to empower women to take their place in school leadership. Training sessions need not only to bring women to consciousness but, also to critically analyse these barriers and constraints. An awareness of these imposed limitations will give rise to improved practice and self-driven professional development. / Educational Leadership and Management / M. Ed. (Education Management)

The aim of this paper is to study how the image of masculinity and how perceptions of masculinity have changed over time, based on the participants' gender and age by answering a survey. The group that participated in the survey consists of members from the National Pensioners' Organization (PRO), and members from the Social Democrats. In total there are 70 questionnaires that form the basis of this paper. The participants have been divided according to age and sex by a quantitative method for responding to this essay’s purpose. The differences between men and women in the study was very small, the same applies when the age groups were studied. The fact that the differences were so small in terms of both age and gender is confirming Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinity. In the study, it becomes obvious that men and women regardless of age share views on what is a good man and what characteristics a good man should have. A man should be responsible, reliable, humble, open and caring according to the participants. The results of this study suggest that men and women are very similar in their answers and highlight the importance of sharing responsibility. Men see themselves to a greater extent as breadwinners, which confirm the previous research that claims that supplying an income to the family is still one of men’s principal responsibilities in the family. The conclusion of this study is that men and women independent of age share the same picture of what are desirable characteristics of a man.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: According to Hurlock ( in Louw, Gerdes & Meyer, 1985), traditional society has a larger number of prescribed values and rules of behaviour than is the case in modern society. In modern society the onus rests on the individual who is expected to direct his behaviour in accordance with the values of his choice. The individual has to accept responsibility for determining his own values. This may create problems for the adolescent because he will be confronted by a wide range of diverse values without the benefit of guidelines or rules to tell him which of those values should be accepted and which should rather be avoided. Against this background it becomes clear why the internalization of moral values, as they develop, is of utmost importance to the adolescent. In this study an attempt has been made to investigate the relationship between stage of moral development and locus of control within a group of Afrikaans-speaking adolescents. The study has further attempted to determine the influence of intellectual ability on the relationship between stage of moral development and locus of control. Males and females were also compared with respect to moral development and locus of control. The sample comprised 193 white, Afrikaans-speaking grade eleven pupils. Seventy-six were boys and 117 girls. The subjects were selected from three high schools situated in three different towns and/or cities. All the subjects came from complete families in which both biological parents were present. Taylor's Reasons for Action Questionnaire (1978) was used to determine the stage of moral development. This questionnaire is based on Lawrence Kohlberg's six stages of moral development which in itself developed from the cognitive-developmental structural approach to moral development. The Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Questionnaire was used to measure the level of locus of control. Intelligence test scores, as measured by the New South African Group Test, were obtained from the E119 records at the various schools. The responses to a biographical questionnaire were used to facilitate the demarcation of the sample. The results of the study indicated that on average the sample as a whole, functions on a conventional moral level. A significantly negative correlation (r(193) = -,28; P < ,001) was found between locus of control and level of moral developement. This indicates that within this group of Afrikaans-speaking adolescents an internal locus of control is associated with a higher level of moral development whilst and external locus of control is associated with a lower level of moral development. In this study intelligence had little or no influence on the relationship between level of moral development and locus of control. This supports the view of Kohlberg (1969) that there is a curved line relationship between the level of moral judgement and intellectual ability. Finally it may be said with a 95% degree of certainty, that there is a significant gender difference in respect of the construct of moral development. The girls used in this sample displayed a more developed level of moral development than the boys. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In tradisionele samelewings is daar, volgens Hurlock (aangehaal in Louw, Gerdes & Meyer, 1985), meer waardes en reëls vir gedrag voorgeskryf as in die moderne samelewing. In die moderne samelewing rus die onus op die individu om sy gedrag volgens die waardes van sy keuse in te rig. Hierdie verantwoordelikheid wat op die individu rus om self sy waardes te bepaal, kan vir die adolessent probleme skep aangesien hy deur 'n groot verskeidenheid waardes konfronteer word sonder riglyne of reëls oor watter waardes aanvaar en watter liefs vermy moet word. Teen hierdie agtergrond is dit duidelik waarom die internalisering van morele waardes, soos dit ontwikkel, van uiterste belang is vir die adolessent. Die onderhawige studie poog om die verband tussen die stadium van morele ontwikkeling en lokus van kontrole by 'n groep Afrikaanssprekende adolessente te ondersoek. Verder is probeer om die invloed van intellektuele vermoë op die verband tussen die stadium van morele ontwikkeling en lokus van kontrole te ondersoek. Laastens is die geslagte met mekaar vergelyk ten opsigte van die twee konstrukte, naamlik stadium van morele ontwikkeling en lokus van kontrole. Die ondersoekgroep het bestaan uit 193 blanke Afrikaanssprekende graad 11 leerlinge. Hiervan was 76 seuns en 117 meisies. Die toetslinge was afkomstig uit drie hoërskole wat in drie verskillende dorpe en/of stede geleë is. Die toetslinge het uit volledige gesinne gekom, dit wil sê, gesinne waar beide die biologiese ouers nog teenwoordig was in die huishouding. Die Redes vir Optrede Vraelys van Taylor (1978) is gebruik om die stadium van morele ontwikkeling vas te stel. Hierdie vraelys is gebaseer op Lawrence Kohlberg se ses stadia van morele ontwikkeling wat ontstaan het vanuit die kognitief-ontwikkelende strukturele benadering van morele ontwikkeling. Die Rotter Interne-Eksterne Lokus van Kontrole Vraelys is gebruik om die vlak van lokus van kontrole te bepaal. Verstandtoetstellings, soos gemeet deur die Nuwe Suid- Afrikaanse Groeptoets, is vanaf die E119-vorms by die onderskeie skole verkry. Die response op "n biografiese vraelys is benut ten einde die steekproef effektief at te baken. Die resultate van die ondersoek toon dat die totale steekproef wat gemiddeldes betref, op 'n konvensionele morele vlak redeneer. Daar is "n beduidende negatiewe verband r(193) = -,28; p< ,001) tussen lokus van kontrole en vlak van morele ontwikkeling gevind. Dit dui daarop dat, by hierdie groep Afrikaanssprekende adolessente, "n interne lokus van kontrole saamgaan met "n hoër vlak van morele ontwikkeling en "n eksterne lokus van kontrole met "n laer vlak van morele ontwikkeling saamgaan. In hierdie studie het intellektuele vermoë ook weinig tot geen invloed op die verband tussen vlak van morele ontwikkeling en lokus van kontrole gehad nie. Die bevinding ondersteun Kohlberg (1969) se siening dat die verband tussen vlak van morele oordeel en intellektuele vermoë kromlynig is. Laastens kan daar met 95% sekerheid gesê word dat die geslagte beduidend van mekaar verskil ten opsigte van die konstruk morele ontwikkeling. Dit blyk dat die meisies in hierdie steekproef moreel verder ontwikkel het as die seuns.

In today’s constantly changing environment globalization offers opportunities as well as threats to manufacturing companies. One trend in industry is that to meet customer demands and global competition, manufacturing companies need to frequently introduce new products to the market at the right time and cost. Another trend is that manufacturing companies relocate their production sites abroad. Therefore, in this thesis the context is global development projects, which includes both new product development and production relocation projects. The global dimension implies that team members are located in different countries. Integration between team members, which in this thesis refers to interaction processes involving information exchange on the one hand and collaboration or cooperation on the other, is therefore a challenge. Even if much research exists with regard to integration, integration across national borders in global development projects has not been addressed to a greater extent. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to expand the analysis of integration in global development projects in order to gain insights regarding the use of different integration mechanisms. The thesis specifically addresses the influence of national cultural and linguistic differences on integration as well as the use of various integration mechanisms. The results originate from one longitudinal case study of a global new product development project and two retrospective case studies including global new product development and production relocation projects. In general, it is concluded that in global development projects national cultural and linguistic differences amplify integration difficulties among project team members who belong to different functions. The comparison of the three global development projects indicated that some of the integration mechanisms worked and were used to integrate team members from different functions, while others did not work as intended. Therefore, this thesis argues that there is a need for a diverse set of integration mechanisms that depend on the context of a global development project and specifically on national cultural and linguistic differences.

In the past four decades considerable efforts have been taken by higher education to understand learner’s differences and learning. Learners have different levels of learning ability associated with their different learning motivations, attitudes and thoughts which are built through years of studying at university. The more the researchers understand the learner's differences the better results they will achieve in covering all levels of learning abilities providing the effective learning for learners. The focus of this study is about studying learning thoughts of academic learners which are scientifically called as the epistemological beliefs. Studying the epistemological beliefs from different angles is important to explore its vital role in learning development. The main aim of this study is to investigate the general and specific epistemological beliefs of undergraduates who study information literacy modules as part of information science. The study focuses on the influence of the independent variables (gender, major and academic level) and the interactions between the independent variables and information literacy on undergraduates’ epistemological beliefs. Two questionnaires are used to measure the general and specific epistemological beliefs of the undergraduates; the Schommer Epistemological-Beliefs Questionnaire (SEQ) and the Discipline-Focused Epistemological Belief Questionnaire (DFEBQ). The participants in the study are undergraduates from the College of Education at Kuwait University. SPSS is used to test the internal consistency of the data against the questionnaires. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used in order to analyse the data. The study confirms that undergraduates hold both general and specific-domain beliefs while they hold more general beliefs in their first year in the college they develop toward more specific domain beliefs in the fourth year. A final result shows that the undergraduates specific domain beliefs – rather than their general beliefs – are more affected by the variable of previous knowledge of information literacy, as well as a clear impact of the interaction between the independent variables but is not so clear on the general beliefs.

This study investigates the gender differences in final year undergraduates’ employment expectations, broken down by salary expectations, occupational expectations and working region expectations, in a university in Central China. It firstly examines whether or not there are gender differences in these employment expectations. It then identifies factors that have actually contributed to the gender differences in employment expectations. The study employs the conceptual framework of ‘choice and constraint’, which means that male and female final year undergraduates are able to make their own choices towards employment expectations; however, their choices are limited by a number of constraints. It adopts a mixed methods sequential explanatory design, using an on-site self-administration questionnaire survey and a follow-up semi-structured interview. The results showed that, overall, male final year undergraduates had higher salary expectations than their female counterparts. In terms of occupational expectations, both males and females preferred jobs in the ‘Education’ and ‘Party Agencies and Social Organizations’ occupations. However, male final year undergraduates were more inclined to expect to work in the ‘Party Agencies and Social Organizations’ occupation and less likely than their female peers to expect to work in the ‘Education’ occupation. With respect to working region expectations, males and females behaved differently. Males tended to put the highly developed area of East China first; whilst females seemed to prefer to stay in Central China. There was also a higher likelihood of females expecting to work near their places of origin than their male peers. Further explorations revealed that firstly, the economic roles being played in the family between the genders and the experienced or perceived sex discrimination in China’s labour market appeared to account for these gender differences in salary expectations. Secondly, gendered job preferences might be related to the gender differences in occupational expectations. That is, males were inclined to highlight pay, job reputation, promotion and even power; whereas females were more concerned with work-life balance, job stability and working environment. Finally, it seemed that parents’ expectations and the gendered orientations (males highlighting work-related issues and females underlining family ties) played a main role in shaping the gender differences in working region expectations.

With up to four generations working together in today’s workforce, research suggests that managers may feel overwhelmed at the idea of strategically managing the diversity of work values amongst their teams. Many studies suggest practical implications for managing a generationally diverse work force, however strong opposition does exist questioning the impact that generation alone has on work values and management strategy. There exists a lack of research studying how managers themselves perceive these conclusions regarding generational differences in work values, and their effect on how they should manage their teams, an intriguing scenario, as it is them whom the conclusions have been derived for. As such the purpose of this study was to be one of the first to determine the degree to which practicing managers acknowledge common conclusions pertaining to the effect an employee’s generation has on their work values, and it’s relevance in management strategy.   The research followed a deductive approach as existing theories and conclusions were tested with the perceptions of practicing managers. A qualitative design allowed for the researchers to engage with respondents in a way that is not possible through a quantitative survey, avoiding the potential overgeneralizations already perceived by some to be abundant in the field. 11 experienced respondents from a single company within the engineering consultancy industry were interviewed addressing three research questions.   Results of the study revealed that practicing managers do recognize work value differences between generations, showing consistencies with existing research however with some deviations in certain work values.  Analysis of results revealed that generation was not the only contributing factor in these differences. Factors such as age, life stage and career stage, as well as industry trends were also revealed to be factors. Generation was not found to be an important influence on an employee’s individual work values compared to individual traits such as one’s personal upbringing, as well as other external, and dynamic factors. Generation was also not an important consideration when creating project teams. As such, understanding employees as individuals was regarded as more relevant than generation in the context of management strategy. Two preliminary models were developed to illustrate the theories and were updated reflecting the results of the analysis.   The study added to the existing body of knowledge by gaining insight on the idea of generational work value differences from a unique perspective by employing a different methodology than commonly seen in the area.

Bakgrund: Underprissättning vid börsintroduktioner är ett väldokumenterat fenomen med flera teoretiska infallsvinklar, men kvarstår fortfarande som ett utav pusslen inom finansiell ekonomi. Underprissättningen, som avser en positiv avkastning efter första handelsdagens slut, skiljer sig i nivå mellan länder och över olika tidsperioder. Formella och informella institutioner är viktiga dimensioner för att förstå företagens och investerarnas strategier, vilket gör att den institutionella miljön även kan förväntas förklara skillnader i underprissättningsnivån. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att undersöka om och hur formella och informella institutioner kan förklara variationen i underprissättningsnivån mellan länder. Metod: Studien följer ett kvantitativt förhållningssätt där 16 hypoteser deduceras. Dessa hypoteser består av olika formella och informella institutionella faktorer som förväntas påverka underprissättningsnivån. Det empiriska materialet består av 6993 börsintroduktioner för perioden mellan 2006 och 2014 och utgör data från 25 länder med olika institutionella karaktärsdrag. Korrelationer undersöks genom en korrelationsmatris medan sambanden analyseras med hjälp av multipla regressioner. Resultat: Resultaten visar att den institutionella miljön har en signifikant påverkan på underprissättningsnivån. En högre kvalité på de formella institutionerna minskar underprissättningsgraden, främst som en följd av att problemen med informationsasymmetrier reduceras. Graden av underprissättning påverkas också av skillnader i informella institutioner där olika kulturella miljöer och normer framhäver skilda beteenden hos börsintroduktionens inblandade parter. / Background: IPO underpricing is a well-documented phenomenon with several theoretical approaches, but it is still one of the puzzles within financial economics. Underpricing, which refers to a positive return after the first day of trade, differ in level between countries and over time. Formal and informal institutions are important dimensions to understand the strategies used within businesses and by investors, which allows the institutional environment to also explain the variations in the level of underpricing. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine if and how formal and informal institutions can explain the variation in level of underpricing between countries. Method: The study follows a quantitative research approach where 16 hypotheses are derived. These hypotheses consist of different formal and informal institutional factors which are expected to explain the differences in the level of underpricing. The empirical data consists of 6993 IPOs between the period of 2006 and 2014 and represents 25 countries with different institutional characteristics. The correlations between the variables are examined in a correlation matrix while the relationships are analyzed by the use of multiple regressions. Conclusions: The results show that the institutional environment has a significant impact on the level of underpricing. A higher quality in the formal institutions reduces the level of underpricing, mainly because of reduced problems with information asymmetry. The level of underpricing is also affected by differences in informal institutions, where different cultural environments and values emphasize different behaviors of the IPO involved parties.

The thesis examines attitudes towards outdoor advertising, with strong emphasis on gender-based differences. The research intends to reveal the most influencing factors, including gender, format, different images and recall. Earlier researchers have argued that females are inclined to rate advertisements more positively than men. Five different, but interconnected studies, one content analysis and four surveys, were implicated in order to measure the responses to advertising. It is further suggested that positive attitude towards outdoor advertising affects the purchase intent. The theme of sexualised advertising is also discussed within this research. After detailed examination of the advertisements in the centre of St. Petersburg it was concluded that females’ rating is considerably more positive compared to males in the situation of high processing opportunity. However, men were more positive when respondents were asked about more general attitudes to outdoor advertising. Recall of advertising was studied within the field settings and showed that women indeed demonstrate better visual memory. Such factors as format, content were proved to have influence on the recall. In addition, different visual preferences were tested within one study. The findings prove that gender differences in perception of outdoor advertising do exist and should be taken into consideration by advertisers in order to raise the effectiveness of advertising campaigns.