Diffraktive Mikrospiegelarrays sind eine seit Jahren etablierte innovative Lösung zur ortsaufgelösten Beleuchtungsmodulation im UV-Spektralbereich. Sie werden hauptsächlich als Schlüsselbauelement in mikrolithografischen Industrieanlagen eingesetzt. Gegenwärtige Untersuchungen befassen sich mit der Erweiterung der Technologie hin zu multispektralen Anwendungen, beispielsweise in der Mikroskopie zur strukturierten Objektausleuchtung. Aufgrund des diffraktiven Arbeitsprinzips mit Phasenmodulationen im Nanometerbereich sowie der Vielzahl von Einzelspiegeln mit individuellem Auslenkverhalten stellt die präzise Ansteuerung der Bauelemente eine wesentliche Herausforderung dar. In diesem Kontext steht die Entwicklung und Validierung eines Verfahrens im Fokus dieser Arbeit, das die Gesamtheit von mehreren Tausend oder auch Millionen Mikrospiegeln abhängig von gewünschtem Beleuchtungsmuster und -wellenlänge auf korrekte Kippwinkel einstellen kann. Der gewählte Ansatz liegt in einem Mess- und Korrekturverfahren aller Einzelspiegelverkippungen. Die als Kalibrierung bezeichnete Methode nutzt ein Weißlichtinterferometer zur profilometrischen Charakterisierung der elektro-mechanischen Übertragungsfunktionen der Aktuatoren, wodurch erstmalig auf diesem Themengebiet der multispektrale Bauelementeinsatz gewährleistet werden kann. Zentrales Ergebnis der Kalibrierroutine ist eine Reduzierung der Streuung der Spiegelverkippungen um einen Faktor größer fünf. Direkte Folge sind erheblich verbesserte optische Projektionsmuster, aufgenommen an einem parallel entwickelten optischen Lasermessplatz mit spektral verschiedenen Quellen. Nachgewiesen wurden im Vergleich zum unkalibrierten Ausgangszustand Kontrastverdoppelungen, Homogenitätssteigerungen und die Sicherstellung der Abbildung von mindestens 64 Graustufen. Die Ergebnisse dokumentieren einerseits die Leistungsfähigkeit von diffraktiven Mikrospiegelarrays in multispektralen Umgebungen mit sehr guten Abbildungseigenschaften. Gleichzeitig konnte die wesentliche Grundlage für einen deutlich erweiterten Einsatz optischer Mikrosysteme im stark wachsenden Anwendungsbereich der diffraktiven Optik bzw. der Ultrapräzisionsoptik geschaffen werden.

The full complex, spatial modulation of light at high frame rates is essential for a variety of applications. In particular, emerging techniques applied to scattering media, such as Digital Optical Phase Conjugation and Wavefront Shaping, request challenging performance parameters. They refer to imaging tasks inside biological media, whose characteristics concerning the transmission and reflection of scattered light may change over time within milliseconds. Thus, these methods call for frame rates in the kilohertz range. Existing solutions typically offer frame rate capabilities below 100 Hz, since they rely on liquid crystal spatial light modulators (SLMs). We propose a diffractive MEMS optical system for this application range. It relies on an analog, tilt-type micro mirror array (MMA) based on an established SLM technology, where the standard application is grayscale amplitude control. The new MMA system design allows the phase manipulation at high-speed as well. The article studies properties of the appropriate optical setup by simulating the propagation of the light. Relevant test patterns and sensitivity parameters of the system will be analyzed. Our results illustrate the main opportunities of the concept with particular focus on the tilt mirror technology. They indicate a promising path to realize the complex light modulation at frame rates above 1 kHz and resolutions well beyond 10,000 complex pixels.

Optical elements are the fundamental components in photonic systems and are used to transform an input optical beam into a desired beam profile or to couple the input beam into waveguides, fibers, or other optical systems or devices. Macroscopic optical elements are easily fabricated using grinding and polishing techniques, but few methods exist for inexpensive fabrication of micro optical elements. In this work we present an innovative technique termed Additive Lithography that makes use of binary masks and controlled partial exposures to sculpt photoresist into the desired optical surface relief profile. We explore various masking schemes for fabricating a variety of optical elements with unprecedented flexibility and precision. These masking schemes used in conjunction with the additive lithographic method allows us to carefully control the photoresist exposure and reflow processes for fabricating complex aspheric lens elements, including aspheric elements whose fabrication often proves highly problematic. It will be demonstrated that employing additive lithography for volume sculpting followed by controlled reflow can also allow us to fabricate refractive beam shaping elements. Finally we will discuss the dry etching techniques used to transfer these optical elements into the glass substrate. Thus the additive lithography technique will be demonstrated as an inexpensive, high throughput and efficient process in the fabrication of micro optical elements.

No description available.

Neste trabalho desenvolvemos duas séries de EODs operando em regime simultâneo de modulação das componentes de fase e de amplitude de uma frente de luz (Modulação Complexa Completa MCC). A primeira destas séries foi constituída por Hologramas de Fourier calculados através do Algoritmo Iterativo da Transformada de Fourier (Iterative Fourier Transform Algorithm IFTA) e a segunda, por Hologramad de Fresnel cujo cálculo da propagação da luz foi obtido por filmagem linear espacial proveniente da solução da Equação de Helmholtz no domínio da frequência. Nos dois casos, a Modulação Complexa Completa foi implementada fisicamente empregando, para realizar a modulação de fase, um micro-relevo gravado em um filme de DLC (Diamond Like Carbon) depositado sobre um substrato de vidro. Sobre este relevo foi implementada a modulação de amplitude, através da deposição de um filme de alumínio, no qual foram realizadas micro-aberturas diferentes cujas áreas eram proporcionais à amplitude em cada pixel. Nos Hologramas de Fourier, uma diferente espessura do filme DLC localizada sobre cada pixel foi responsável pela modulação do valor de fase relativo àquele ponto. Nos Hologramas de Fresnel, a combinação de duas espessuras diferentes do filme de DLC em cada pixel foi responsável pela modulação do valor de fase relativo a cada ponto. Os elementos foram caracterizados física e opticamente e produziram imagens de reconstrução totalmente livres de ruídos do tipo speckle. Também em caráter de avaliação dos resultados foi efetuada a comparação entre as imagens de reconstrução óptica produzidas pelos Hologramas de Fresnel com MCC com as produzidas por Hologramas de Fresnel convencionais em regime de modulação de fase. / In this work, we developed two sets of DOESs able to modulate both phase and amplitude components of light simultaneously (Complete Complex Modulation CCM). The first set is composed of Fourier Holograms calculated by Iteractive Fourier Transform Algorithm (IFTA). The second set is composed by Fresnel Holograms, which light propagation was calculated by spatial linear filtering obtained from the solution of the Helmholtz Equation in the frequency domain. In both cases, Complete Complex Modulation was physically implemented by a micro-relief, for phase modulation, recorded on a Diamond Like Carbon (DLC) film deposited on a glass substrate. Amplitude modulation was implemented on a aluminum fim layer deposited on this relief. In this layer, micro-appertures proportional to the amplitude on each pixel, were recorded. Phase modulation in each pixel of the Fourier Holograms was achivied by different thicknesses of the DLC film. For Fresnel Holograms, phase modulation was achieved by combining two different thicknesses of DLC film inside each pixel. The elements were physically and optically characterized and produced reconstruction images completly free of speckle like noise. The optical reconstruction images produced from Fresnel Holograms working in CCM regime and convencional phase-only modulated Fourier Holograms were compared.

Il s'agit ici du bilan de plus de 10 ans d'enseignement et de recherche dans le domaine de la micro et de l'opto électronique, et plus particulièrement des dernières années passées au sein de l'Ecole Centrale Marseille et de l'institut Fresnel. <br />Deux thématiques de recherche sont abordées : <br />- La caractérisation optique de défauts submicroniques dans les matériaux, qui a constitué, dans la continuité de ma thèse, la première partie de mes activités : caractérisation de précipités dans le Silicium par le développement d'un microscope infrarouge à balayage ; développement d'un microscope photo thermique pour la détection de nano défauts absorbants précurseurs d'endommagement dans les couches minces optique.<br />- L'optique pour la microélectronique, thématique initiée en 2000 au laboratoire, qui aborde la modélisation optique de capteurs d'images en technologie CMOS en vue d'adapter leur structure aux contraintes de réflexion et diffraction optique liées à la réduction de taille des pixels imposée par le marché.<br />Sont aussi concernés les masques avancés pour la photolithographie optique, et l'adaptation de techniques de traitement du signal et des images à la modélisation de corrections optiques de proximité (OPC) qu'il faut appliquer sur les masques pour corriger les effets de la diffraction dans le cadre de la diminution de taille des composants.<br />Des projets de recherche orientés sur l'application des capteurs et du traitement multidimensionnel du signal pour des applications médicales et de sécurité sont aussi présentés.

Cette these est consacre l'etude mathematique de la<br />propagation non-linaire d'ondes haute-frequence, dans des milieux <br />inhomognes constitues de deux matriaux d'indice de refraction constant et<br />separes par une interface plane. La presence de l'interface ncessite<br />de decrire les phnomenes de reflexion-transmission a la traverse de la<br />discontinuite. L'approche choisie releve de l'optique gometrique.<br />L'exemple typique, etudie, est le systeme d'quations Maxwell-Lorentz<br />complete de diverses quations dcrivant la polarisation de chaque milieux.<br /><br />La nouveaute de ce travail vient du caractere dispersif des quations<br />et de la prise en compte des quations de bord exactes.<br />Dans ce cadre la relation de dispersion ou variete caractristique n'est pas<br />homogne ce qui implique une reelle dpendance des vitesses de groupe<br />vis-a-vis de la taille des frequences et pas seulement de leur direction.<br />Au niveau du probleme limite ceci a pour consquence la creation de<br />nouvelles phases caracterisriques issues des intractions<br />non-lineaires des phases existentes avec le bord.<br /><br />Le premier chapitre re-situe la problematique dans un contexte<br />historique et mathematique. Il y est egalement donne un resume des<br />trois autres chapitres. Le second chapitre, coeur de la these,<br />concerne l'analyse de l'Optique Gomtrique pour le problme de<br />transmission avec des dveloppements assymptotiques tous ordres. Il<br />contient une analyse precise de la generation non-linaire des phases<br />au bord et justifie rigoureusement l'approximation du<br />developpement. Il donne galement un nouveau traitement des modes evanescents.<br /> <br />Dans le meme contexte geomtrique, le troisime chapitre aborde le<br />probleme de l'Optique Diffractive avec la recherche de solutions<br />assymptotiques approchees a tous ordres pour des temps de propagation plus long. <br /><br />Enfin, dans un quatrieme chapitre sont construits et testes des shemas<br />numriques 1D quasi linairement exacts pour simuler la propagation (en variable<br />d'espace) en temps long d'ondes issues d'un bord.

No description available.

Bragg scattering of optical waves in thick gratings at extreme angles, where the scattered wave propagates parallel (extremely asymmetric scattering - EAS) or nearly parallel (grazing angle scattering - GAS) to the grating boundaries, is associated with many unique and practically important resonant phenomena. It has been demonstrated that one of the main physical mechanisms for these resonant phenomena is the diffractional divergence of the scattered wave inside and outside the grating region. This thesis fills the gaps in the theoretical and experimental understanding of Bragg scattering in gratings at extreme angles by investigating EAS and GAS in structures where diffractional divergence of waves is significantly affected by anisotropy and/or non-uniformities of the dielectric permittivity. Unusually high sensitivity of wave scattering in thick periodic gratings to small step-like variations of mean structural parameters at the grating boundaries is predicted and described for the case when the scattered wave (the +1 diffracted order) propagates almost parallel to the front grating boundary (the geometry of GAS). A unusual pattern of strong multiple resonances for bulk electromagnetic waves is predicted and analysed numerically in thick periodic holographic gratings in a guiding slab with mean permittivity that is greater than that of the surrounding media. It is demonstrated that these resonances are related to resonant generation of a new type of eigenmodes in a thick slab with a periodic grating. These eigenmodes are generically related to the grating -- they do exist not if the grating amplitude is zero. A new type of resonant coupling of bulk radiation into the conventional guided modes of a slab with a thick holographic grating is predicted and explained theoretically. It occurs in the presence of strong frequency detunings of the Bragg condition by means of interaction of the strongly non-eigen +1 diffracted order with the slab-grating boundaries. Therefore, it is only in the presence of step-like variations of the mean permittivity at the grating boundaries that this type of resonant coupling can occur. A new method for the analysis of EAS and GAS in anisotropic gratings is developed. This method is based on the consideration of the diffractional divergence of the scattered wave and the two-wave approximation in anisotropic gratings. Special efforts are focused on the analysis of EAS and GAS of extraordinary waves in uniaxial gratings. In particular, it is demonstrated that increasing curvature of the normal surface in the direction of propagation of the scattered wave results in increase of its diffraction divergence and the resonant amplitude. A theoretical model is developed for comparison of the theoretical predictions with data obtained from experimental observations of EAS in a holographic grating written in a photorefractive medium. The developed model is applied for the interpretation of experimental observations of EAS in BaTiO3 photorefractive crystals. Good agreement with the theoretical predictions is demonstrated.

Les systèmes micro-opto-électro-mécaniques (MOEMS) représentent un atout considérable pour les technologies de demain et démontrent régulièrement leur capacité d'innovation dans tous les domaines de recherches. L'astronomie en profite déjà à travers l'optique adaptative et leur versatilité a récemment permis de développer un nouveau spectro-imageur BATMAN qui verra sa première lumière au Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) à La Palma (Iles Canaries). Le code de contrôle du MOEMS permettant l'automatisation de l'acquisition des spectres a été le point de départ de mon travail au LAM.La partie principale de ce manuscrit traite d'une seconde application imaginée en associant les MOEMS à un matériau photochromique développé à Polytecnico di Milano (Italie) qui peut prendre deux états différenciés par leur transparence. Le MOEMS, initialement utilisé pour la projection d'image, permet de moduler la dose d'énergie lumineuse projeté sur la plaque photochromique qui répond en s'éclaircissant progressivement. Ce procédé permet donc d'enregistrer des images en niveau de gris sur la plaque et notamment des hologrammes générés par ordinateur (CGH) utilisés en métrologie optique. Actuellement, les CGHs utilisés sont binaires, mais notre procédure permet d'enregistrer des CGHs quantifiés en amplitude avec une résolution de 13,68 µm et une précision inférieure à 1% en terme de transparence malgré un éclairage peu homogène. La quantification des CGHs de type Fresnel et Fourier ont été calculés, réalisés et testés avec succès. Deux nouveaux algorithmes de Fourier ont étaient imaginés, réalisés et ont montrés des performances très supérieurs au code usuel de Lee qui est un codage binaire. / Micro-opto-electro-mecanical systems (MOEMS) are primordial tools for future applications in several scientific fields as telecommunications or image display. Astronomy takes also advantage of their great adaptatbility thanks to the development of adaptative optics; a new spectro-imager called BATMAN has recently been develloped to be installed at Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) in the Canaries Islands. The control of the MOEMS allowing computerizing this processus has been the starting point of my work at the LAM.The main part of this manuscript deals with another application conceived thanks to the association of the characteristics of MOEMS and photosensitive materials developed at Politecnico di Milano (Italy). These materials can be put in two states differentiated by their transparency. The MOEMS, initially used to display images, allows controlling the dose of light projected on the photocrhomic plate which reacts by becoming more and more transparent. This process permit to record Computer Generated Holograms (CGHs) in grayscale which are used in optical metrology. Today, binary CGHs are used but our process allows to record amplitude quantified CGHs with a resolution of 13.68 µm and a precision better than 1% in term of transparency, even with a non homogeneous illumination beam. Comparative studies have shown advantages of quantified CGHs of Fresnel and Fourier families. Two new Fourier algorithms have been conceived thanks to use of the third dimension offered by the control of the transparency. They have been realized and tested succesfully, and have shown much better performances than the current binary coding, so called Lee algorithm.