O objetivo desta tese é o estudo de formação de fuligem em chamas laminares de difusão. Para o modelo de formação de fuligem é escolhido um modelo semi-empírico de duas equações para prever a fração mássica de fuligem e o número de partículas de fuligem. O modelo descreve os processos de nucleação, de crescimento superficial e de oxidação das partículas. Para o modelo de radiação, a perda de calor por radiação térmica (gás e fuligem) é modelada considerando o modelo de gás cinza no limite de chama opticamente fina (OTA - Optically Thin Approximation). São avaliados diferentes modelos de cálculo das propriedades de transporte (detalhado e simplificado). Em relação à cinética química, tanto modelos detalhados quanto reduzidos são utilizados. No presente estudo, é explorada a técnica automática de redução conhecida como Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM), sendo que esta técnica é capaz de resolver cinética química detalhada com tempos computacionais reduzidos. Para verificar o modelo de formação de fuligem foram realizados uma variedade de experimentos numéricos, desde chamas laminares unidimensionais adiabáticas de etileno em configuração tipo jatos opostos (counterflow) até chamas laminares bidimensionais com perda de calor de etileno em configuração tipo jato (coflow). Para testar a limitação do modelo os acoplamentos de massa e energia entre a fase sólida e a fase gasosa são investigados e quantificados para as chamas contra-corrente Os resultados mostraram que os termos de radiação da fase gasosa e sólida são os termos de maior importancia para as chamas estudas. Os termos de acoplamento adicionais (massa e propriedade termodinâmicas) são geralmente termos de efeitos de segunda ordem, mas a importância destes termos aumenta conforme a quantidade de fuligem aumenta. Como uma recomendação geral o acoplamento com todos os termos deve ser levado em conta somente quando a fração mássica de fuligem, YS, for igual ou superior a 0.008. Na sequência a formação de fuligem foi estudada em chamas bi-dimensionais de etileno em configuração jato laminar usando cinética química detalhada e explorando os efeitos de diferentes modelos de cálculo de propriedades de transporte. Foi encontrado novamente que os termos de radiação da fase gasosa e sólida são os termos de maior importância e uma primeira aproximação para resolver a chama bidimensional de jato laminar de etileno pode ser feita usando o modelo de transporte simplificado. Finalmente, o modelo de fuligem é implementado com a técnica de redução FGM e diferentes formas de armazenar as informações sobre o modelo de fuligem nas tabelas termoquímicas (manifold) são testadas A melhor opção testada neste trabalho é a de resolver todos os flamelets com as fases sólida e gasosa acopladas e armazenar as taxas de reação da fuligem por área de partícula no manifold. Nas simulações bidimensionais estas taxas são então recuperadas para resolver as equações adicionais de formação de fuligem. Os resultados mostraram uma boa concordância qualitativa entre as predições do FGM e da solução detalhada, mas a grande quantidade de fuligem no sistema ainda introduz alguns desafios para a obtenção de bons resultados quantitativos. Entretanto, este trabalho demonstrou o grande potencial do método FGM em predizer a formação de fuligem em chamas multidimensionais de difusão de etileno em tempos computacionais reduzidos. / The objective of this thesis is to study soot formation in laminar diffusion flames. For soot modeling, a semi-empirical two equation model is chosen for predicting soot mass fraction and number density. The model describes particle nucleation, surface growth and oxidation. For flame radiation, the radiant heat losses (gas and soot) is modelled by using the grey-gas approximation with Optically Thin Approximation (OTA). Different transport models (detailed or simplified) are evaluated. For the chemical kinetics, detailed and reduced approaches are employed. In the present work, the automatic reduction technique known as Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM) is being explored. This reduction technique is able to deal with detailed kinetic mechanisms with reduced computational times. To assess the soot formation a variety of numerical experiments were done, from one-dimensional ethylene counterflow adiabatic flames to two-dimensional coflow ethylene flames with heat loss. In order to assess modeling limitations the mass and energy coupling between soot solid particles and gas-phase species are investigated and quantified for counterflow flames. It is found that the gas and soot radiation terms are of primary importance for flame simulations. The additional coupling terms (mass and thermodynamic properties) are generally a second order effect, but their importance increase as the soot amount increases As a general recommendation the full coupling should be taken into account only when the soot mass fraction, YS, is equal to or larger than 0.008. Then the simulation of soot is applied to two-dimensional ethylene co-flow flames with detailed chemical kinetics and explores the effect of different transport models on soot predictions. It is found that the gas and soot radiation terms are also of primary importance for flame simulations and that a first attempt to solve the two-dimensional ethylene co-flow flame can be done using a simplified transport model. Finally an implementation of the soot model with the FGM reduction technique is done and different forms for storing soot information in the manifold is explored. The best option tested in this work is to solve all flamelets with soot and gas-phase species in a coupled manner, and to store the soot rates in terms of specific surface area in the manifold. In the two-dimensional simulations, these soot rates are then retrieved to solve the additional equations for soot modeling. The results showed a good qualitative agreement between FGM solution and the detailed solution, but the high amount of soot in the system still imposes some challenges to obtain good quantitative results. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated the great potential of the method for predicting soot formation in multidimensional ethylene diffusion flames with reduced computational time.

À ses débuts, la conquête spatiale a pu bénéficier des rivalités politiques de la Guerre Froide pour se développer rapidement sans réellement se soucier des efforts économiques à fournir. Aujourd’hui, de nombreux pays subissent le revers de la médaille de cette course effrénée : pour maintenir une flotte de lanceurs viable économiquement, les différentes agences spatiales doivent faire face à un dilemme opposant la minimisation des coûts de lancement à la maximisation de leur fiabilité. Dans cette logique d’optimisation, les industriels présents dans ce processus de réflexion se tournent vers la simulation numérique pour tenter d’améliorer leurs connaissances des technologies existantes, en particulier sur les zones d’ombres inaccessibles aux mesures expérimentales. Dans la lignée de plusieurs études théoriques et expérimentales, ces travaux visent à apporter un éclairage nouveau sur les phénomènes se produisant lors de l’allumage d’un moteur fusée cryotechnique. Ces recherches se tournent dans un premier temps vers l’amélioration de la modélisation de la flamme H2/O2. La validation d’une cinétique chimique réduite initialement destinée à la combustion H2/Air permet de justifier son utilisation lors de l’allumage. Puis, le développement d’un modèle de combustion turbulente pour le régime de flamme de diffusion est mené dans le but de palier aux limitations du modèle de flamme épaissie. Enfin, une analyse du cas où les régimes prémélangés et non-prémélangés sont présents tous les deux permet d’étudier un moyen simple de les distinguer même dans le cas où ils sont très proches. Dans un second temps, ces travaux se tournent vers l’étude de l’allumage dans un moteur fusée cryotechnique. Après avoir analysé de manière globale le calcul d’une séquence simplifiée, deux études plus approfondies sont menées pour investiguer, d’une part, les différents régimes de combustion, et d’autre part, les différents modes de propagation de la flamme propres à cette configuration. / The beginning of the conquest of space received benefits from the political competition of the Cold War and consequently grow quickly without considering the cost of these advances. The end of this unrestrained technological race brings to light the other side of the coin. In order to keep a fleet of launch vehicles up-to-date with the market, spatial agencies must answer a question : how can the cost of a launch be reduced without decreasing its efficiency. Through the use of numerical simulation, industrial partners may investigate this logic of optimisation. This solution might provide improvement in the knowledge of existing technologies, especially when experimental measurements are impossible. Following the path of theoretical and experimental results, this study aims to present a new view about the different processes occurring during the ignition of a space rocket engine. First, this research will present an improvement of the modelling of H2/O2 flame. The validation of a reduced chemical scheme basically developed for H2/Air will justify its use during the ignition sequence. Then, a turbulent combustion model for non-premixed flames will be developed in order to compensate the limits of the thickened flame model implemented in AVBP. Additionally, a study of both premixed and non-premixed regimes in a closed position will bring a simple method to distinguish them for a further active use. Secondly, this research will study the ignition process of a representative cryogenic space rocket chamber. The calculation of a simplified ignition sequence will be globally investigated. Finally, two-detailed analysis will lead to different combustion regimes and flame spreading processes

O objetivo desta tese é o estudo de formação de fuligem em chamas laminares de difusão. Para o modelo de formação de fuligem é escolhido um modelo semi-empírico de duas equações para prever a fração mássica de fuligem e o número de partículas de fuligem. O modelo descreve os processos de nucleação, de crescimento superficial e de oxidação das partículas. Para o modelo de radiação, a perda de calor por radiação térmica (gás e fuligem) é modelada considerando o modelo de gás cinza no limite de chama opticamente fina (OTA - Optically Thin Approximation). São avaliados diferentes modelos de cálculo das propriedades de transporte (detalhado e simplificado). Em relação à cinética química, tanto modelos detalhados quanto reduzidos são utilizados. No presente estudo, é explorada a técnica automática de redução conhecida como Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM), sendo que esta técnica é capaz de resolver cinética química detalhada com tempos computacionais reduzidos. Para verificar o modelo de formação de fuligem foram realizados uma variedade de experimentos numéricos, desde chamas laminares unidimensionais adiabáticas de etileno em configuração tipo jatos opostos (counterflow) até chamas laminares bidimensionais com perda de calor de etileno em configuração tipo jato (coflow). Para testar a limitação do modelo os acoplamentos de massa e energia entre a fase sólida e a fase gasosa são investigados e quantificados para as chamas contra-corrente Os resultados mostraram que os termos de radiação da fase gasosa e sólida são os termos de maior importancia para as chamas estudas. Os termos de acoplamento adicionais (massa e propriedade termodinâmicas) são geralmente termos de efeitos de segunda ordem, mas a importância destes termos aumenta conforme a quantidade de fuligem aumenta. Como uma recomendação geral o acoplamento com todos os termos deve ser levado em conta somente quando a fração mássica de fuligem, YS, for igual ou superior a 0.008. Na sequência a formação de fuligem foi estudada em chamas bi-dimensionais de etileno em configuração jato laminar usando cinética química detalhada e explorando os efeitos de diferentes modelos de cálculo de propriedades de transporte. Foi encontrado novamente que os termos de radiação da fase gasosa e sólida são os termos de maior importância e uma primeira aproximação para resolver a chama bidimensional de jato laminar de etileno pode ser feita usando o modelo de transporte simplificado. Finalmente, o modelo de fuligem é implementado com a técnica de redução FGM e diferentes formas de armazenar as informações sobre o modelo de fuligem nas tabelas termoquímicas (manifold) são testadas A melhor opção testada neste trabalho é a de resolver todos os flamelets com as fases sólida e gasosa acopladas e armazenar as taxas de reação da fuligem por área de partícula no manifold. Nas simulações bidimensionais estas taxas são então recuperadas para resolver as equações adicionais de formação de fuligem. Os resultados mostraram uma boa concordância qualitativa entre as predições do FGM e da solução detalhada, mas a grande quantidade de fuligem no sistema ainda introduz alguns desafios para a obtenção de bons resultados quantitativos. Entretanto, este trabalho demonstrou o grande potencial do método FGM em predizer a formação de fuligem em chamas multidimensionais de difusão de etileno em tempos computacionais reduzidos. / The objective of this thesis is to study soot formation in laminar diffusion flames. For soot modeling, a semi-empirical two equation model is chosen for predicting soot mass fraction and number density. The model describes particle nucleation, surface growth and oxidation. For flame radiation, the radiant heat losses (gas and soot) is modelled by using the grey-gas approximation with Optically Thin Approximation (OTA). Different transport models (detailed or simplified) are evaluated. For the chemical kinetics, detailed and reduced approaches are employed. In the present work, the automatic reduction technique known as Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM) is being explored. This reduction technique is able to deal with detailed kinetic mechanisms with reduced computational times. To assess the soot formation a variety of numerical experiments were done, from one-dimensional ethylene counterflow adiabatic flames to two-dimensional coflow ethylene flames with heat loss. In order to assess modeling limitations the mass and energy coupling between soot solid particles and gas-phase species are investigated and quantified for counterflow flames. It is found that the gas and soot radiation terms are of primary importance for flame simulations. The additional coupling terms (mass and thermodynamic properties) are generally a second order effect, but their importance increase as the soot amount increases As a general recommendation the full coupling should be taken into account only when the soot mass fraction, YS, is equal to or larger than 0.008. Then the simulation of soot is applied to two-dimensional ethylene co-flow flames with detailed chemical kinetics and explores the effect of different transport models on soot predictions. It is found that the gas and soot radiation terms are also of primary importance for flame simulations and that a first attempt to solve the two-dimensional ethylene co-flow flame can be done using a simplified transport model. Finally an implementation of the soot model with the FGM reduction technique is done and different forms for storing soot information in the manifold is explored. The best option tested in this work is to solve all flamelets with soot and gas-phase species in a coupled manner, and to store the soot rates in terms of specific surface area in the manifold. In the two-dimensional simulations, these soot rates are then retrieved to solve the additional equations for soot modeling. The results showed a good qualitative agreement between FGM solution and the detailed solution, but the high amount of soot in the system still imposes some challenges to obtain good quantitative results. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated the great potential of the method for predicting soot formation in multidimensional ethylene diffusion flames with reduced computational time.

O objetivo desta tese é o estudo de formação de fuligem em chamas laminares de difusão. Para o modelo de formação de fuligem é escolhido um modelo semi-empírico de duas equações para prever a fração mássica de fuligem e o número de partículas de fuligem. O modelo descreve os processos de nucleação, de crescimento superficial e de oxidação das partículas. Para o modelo de radiação, a perda de calor por radiação térmica (gás e fuligem) é modelada considerando o modelo de gás cinza no limite de chama opticamente fina (OTA - Optically Thin Approximation). São avaliados diferentes modelos de cálculo das propriedades de transporte (detalhado e simplificado). Em relação à cinética química, tanto modelos detalhados quanto reduzidos são utilizados. No presente estudo, é explorada a técnica automática de redução conhecida como Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM), sendo que esta técnica é capaz de resolver cinética química detalhada com tempos computacionais reduzidos. Para verificar o modelo de formação de fuligem foram realizados uma variedade de experimentos numéricos, desde chamas laminares unidimensionais adiabáticas de etileno em configuração tipo jatos opostos (counterflow) até chamas laminares bidimensionais com perda de calor de etileno em configuração tipo jato (coflow). Para testar a limitação do modelo os acoplamentos de massa e energia entre a fase sólida e a fase gasosa são investigados e quantificados para as chamas contra-corrente Os resultados mostraram que os termos de radiação da fase gasosa e sólida são os termos de maior importancia para as chamas estudas. Os termos de acoplamento adicionais (massa e propriedade termodinâmicas) são geralmente termos de efeitos de segunda ordem, mas a importância destes termos aumenta conforme a quantidade de fuligem aumenta. Como uma recomendação geral o acoplamento com todos os termos deve ser levado em conta somente quando a fração mássica de fuligem, YS, for igual ou superior a 0.008. Na sequência a formação de fuligem foi estudada em chamas bi-dimensionais de etileno em configuração jato laminar usando cinética química detalhada e explorando os efeitos de diferentes modelos de cálculo de propriedades de transporte. Foi encontrado novamente que os termos de radiação da fase gasosa e sólida são os termos de maior importância e uma primeira aproximação para resolver a chama bidimensional de jato laminar de etileno pode ser feita usando o modelo de transporte simplificado. Finalmente, o modelo de fuligem é implementado com a técnica de redução FGM e diferentes formas de armazenar as informações sobre o modelo de fuligem nas tabelas termoquímicas (manifold) são testadas A melhor opção testada neste trabalho é a de resolver todos os flamelets com as fases sólida e gasosa acopladas e armazenar as taxas de reação da fuligem por área de partícula no manifold. Nas simulações bidimensionais estas taxas são então recuperadas para resolver as equações adicionais de formação de fuligem. Os resultados mostraram uma boa concordância qualitativa entre as predições do FGM e da solução detalhada, mas a grande quantidade de fuligem no sistema ainda introduz alguns desafios para a obtenção de bons resultados quantitativos. Entretanto, este trabalho demonstrou o grande potencial do método FGM em predizer a formação de fuligem em chamas multidimensionais de difusão de etileno em tempos computacionais reduzidos. / The objective of this thesis is to study soot formation in laminar diffusion flames. For soot modeling, a semi-empirical two equation model is chosen for predicting soot mass fraction and number density. The model describes particle nucleation, surface growth and oxidation. For flame radiation, the radiant heat losses (gas and soot) is modelled by using the grey-gas approximation with Optically Thin Approximation (OTA). Different transport models (detailed or simplified) are evaluated. For the chemical kinetics, detailed and reduced approaches are employed. In the present work, the automatic reduction technique known as Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM) is being explored. This reduction technique is able to deal with detailed kinetic mechanisms with reduced computational times. To assess the soot formation a variety of numerical experiments were done, from one-dimensional ethylene counterflow adiabatic flames to two-dimensional coflow ethylene flames with heat loss. In order to assess modeling limitations the mass and energy coupling between soot solid particles and gas-phase species are investigated and quantified for counterflow flames. It is found that the gas and soot radiation terms are of primary importance for flame simulations. The additional coupling terms (mass and thermodynamic properties) are generally a second order effect, but their importance increase as the soot amount increases As a general recommendation the full coupling should be taken into account only when the soot mass fraction, YS, is equal to or larger than 0.008. Then the simulation of soot is applied to two-dimensional ethylene co-flow flames with detailed chemical kinetics and explores the effect of different transport models on soot predictions. It is found that the gas and soot radiation terms are also of primary importance for flame simulations and that a first attempt to solve the two-dimensional ethylene co-flow flame can be done using a simplified transport model. Finally an implementation of the soot model with the FGM reduction technique is done and different forms for storing soot information in the manifold is explored. The best option tested in this work is to solve all flamelets with soot and gas-phase species in a coupled manner, and to store the soot rates in terms of specific surface area in the manifold. In the two-dimensional simulations, these soot rates are then retrieved to solve the additional equations for soot modeling. The results showed a good qualitative agreement between FGM solution and the detailed solution, but the high amount of soot in the system still imposes some challenges to obtain good quantitative results. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated the great potential of the method for predicting soot formation in multidimensional ethylene diffusion flames with reduced computational time.

Combustion-generated carbon black nano particles, or soot, have both positive and negative effects depending on the application. From a positive point of view, it is used as a reinforcing agent in tires, black pigment in inks, and surface coatings. From a negative point of view, it affects performance and durability of many combustion systems, it is a major contributor of global warming, and it is linked to respiratory illness and cancer. Laser-Induced Incandescence (LII) was used in this study to measure soot volume fractions in four steady and twenty-eight pulsed ethylene diffusion flames burning at atmospheric pressure. A laminar coflow diffusion burner combined with a very-high-speed solenoid valve and control circuit provided unsteady flows by forcing the fuel flow with frequencies between 10 Hz and 200 Hz. Periodic flame oscillations were captured by two-dimensional phase-locked LII images and broadband luminosity images for eight phases (0°- 360°) covering each period. A comparison between the steady and pulsed flames and the effect of the pulsation frequency on soot volume fraction in the flame region and the post flame region are presented. The most significant effect of pulsing frequency was observed at 10 Hz. At this frequency, the flame with the lowest mean flow rate had 1.77 times enhancement in peak soot volume fraction and 1.2 times enhancement in total soot volume fraction; whereas the flame with the highest mean flow rate had no significant change in the peak soot volume fraction and 1.4 times reduction in the total soot volume fraction. A correlation (ƒv Reˉ1 = a+b· Str) for the total soot volume fraction in the flame region for the unsteady laminar ethylene flames was obtained for the pulsation frequency between 10 Hz and 200 Hz, and the Reynolds number between 37 and 55. The soot primary particle size in steady and unsteady flames was measured using the Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence (TIRE-LII) and the double-exponential fit method. At maximum frequency (200 Hz), the soot particles were smaller in size by 15% compared to the steady case in the flame with the highest mean flow rate.

This work represents the initial steps in a wider project that aims to map out the sensitive areas in fuel injectors and combustion chambers. Direct numerical simulation (DNS) using a Low-Mach-number formulation of the Navier–Stokes equations is used to calculate direct-linear and adjoint global modes for axisymmetric low-density jets and lifted jet diffusion flames. The adjoint global modes provide a map of the most sensitive locations to open-loop external forcing and heating. For the jet flows considered here, the most sensitive region is at the inlet of the domain. The sensitivity of the global-mode eigenvalues to force feedback and to heat and drag from a hot-wire is found using a general structural sensitivity framework. Force feedback can occur from a sensor-actuator in the flow or as a mechanism that drives global instability. For the lifted flames, the most sensitive areas lie between the inlet and flame base. In this region the jet is absolutely unstable, but the close proximity of the flame suppresses the global instability seen in the non-reacting case. The lifted flame is therefore particularly sensitive to outside disturbances in the non-reacting zone. The DNS results are compared to a local analysis. The most absolutely unstable region for all the flows considered is at the inlet, with the wavemaker slightly downstream of the inlet. For lifted flames, the region of largest sensitivity to force feedback is near to the location of the wavemaker, but for the non-reacting jet this region is downstream of the wavemaker and outside of the pocket of absolute instability near the inlet. Analysing the sensitivity of reacting and non-reacting variable-density shear flows using the low-Mach-number approximation has up until now not been done. By including reaction, a large forward step has been taken in applying these techniques to real fuel injectors.

Tato diplomová práce je zaměřena na porovnání různých turbulentních a chemických modelů na příkladu volné metanové trysky ústící do vzduchu. Nejprve je uveden teoretický úvod k modelům, následován CFD (Ansys Fluent) simulacemi plamene pomocí vybraných modelů. Jako součást práce je provedeno a vyhodnoceno experimentální měření. V závěru jsou experimentální výsledky porovnány s nasimulovanými daty.

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This master's thesis deals with the optimization of conditions of chemical hydride generation (HG) of bismuth, its atomization and detection by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS). Two types of atomizers were used for atomization of volatile species, a miniature diffusion flame for AAS as well as for AFS and a flame-in-gas-shield atomizer for AFS. At first, the parameters of HG in a flow injection mode were optimized - the concentration of hydrochloric acid, the concentration of sodium borohydride and the volume of the reaction coil. Subsequently, the atomization conditions were optimized using both atomizers. The parameters optimized were hydrogen fraction, total gas flow rate and observation height. Due to the more complicated construction of the FIGS atomizer, more parameters were studied, such as the oxygen flow rate through the capillary and the flow rate of shielding argon required for shielding the free atoms. A special part of the thesis dealt with the optimization of the optical path of the atomic fluorescence spectrometer, the selection of an interference filter and the optimization of a power supply of an electrodeless discharge lamp. It was found that under optimum conditions of generation, atomization and detection excellent detection limits...