In our current environment, where we increasingly become dependent on the internet, the definition of living smart is widely used. Smart living involves original and innovative solutions to make life more efficient, controllable, economical, productive, integrated and sustainable. The Internet of Things (IoT) helps people with the lifestyle of smart living and helps them gain complete control. IoT does not only offer smart devices for the home, such as Google Home or Alexa. It is also essential for small and big businesses. The ability to transfer data over a network without any human interaction is needed in today's society. Organisations in multiple industries are using IoT to improve decision-making and overall quality of life for their employees. One way of using the IoT infrastructures is a concept called digital twin or a Digital Twin of an Organization (DTO). Since an organisation is constantly evolving, keeping the DTO aligned with the organisation will require an infrastructure that lends itself to be highly flexible and maintainable. The EA Blueprint Pattern was proposed to help achieve a flexible and maintainableDTO. However, there are limited practical instantiations of this pattern that can evaluate its utility. This project will therefore perform a practical evaluation and analysis of the pattern.

There is growing interest in the concept of digital twins (DTs) among software engineers and researchers. As an emerging topic, DTs are a promising paradigm to enhance the predictability, safety, and reliability of cyber-physical systems in different domains. Despite the increasing trend, it is continually challenging to decide the best approach to implement DTs. Moreover, to the best of the author's knowledge, it was found that there is a lack of conducted research and no systematic reviews on DTs in the transportation industry, especially in the area of railway systems. Therefore, following the systematic literature review method, this thesis work has identified 363 articles in four digital libraries, of which 60 primary articles were included to address three research questions. The review shows that most of the reviewed articles focus on the railway subarea maintenance and inspection, the DT enabling technology artificial intelligence is the most coupled technology. An in-depth analysis found that most of the articles apply machine learning algorithms and techniques in DTs to detect faults, predict failures, make automated decisions, and monitor health status to optimize railway systems. It was also found that interoperability is the most discussed challenge, where the difficulty is to transmit operational data in real-time and also achieve real-time decision making. Furthermore, the analysis shows several opportunities and advantages of DTs, such as reducing maintenance costs and the positive contribution to a reduction in freight transport by road. Finally, based on the findings of the conducted review, a guideline to support the design of a DT for predictive maintenance in railways in the form of a flowchart is presented and explained.

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Örebro University and Akademiska Hus have started an initiative towards smart buildings. Avery important role to this is Digital Twin for buildings. Digital twin for buildings is a virtualcopy of a physical building. And by adding a Data Driven Simulation System, an even moresmart building could be achieved. Given a humidity-, temperature-, illuminance- and motionsensor in a specific corridor at the Örebro University, this thesis will ascertain what can bedone by creating a Data Driven Simulation System and using these sensors to achieve thedesired smart building. In this thesis, a simulation was created with simulated sensors andpedestrians. The simulation is a clone of the real world, by using real life sensors andapplying the data to the simulated sensors, this was partially achieved.

The use of virtual commissioning has increased in the last years, but there are still challenges before the software code validation method is widespread in use. One of the additions to virtual commissioning is basing it on a digital twin to allow for improved accuracy. The aim of this thesis is to review existing standards and approaches to developing virtual commissioning, as well as to explore the definitions. The chosen approach to achieve the aim, is to perform a literature review of existing research papers and interviews with knowledgeable people in the industry. First, the definitions and classifications are reviewed, then the approaches for development of virtual commissioning and digital twins are explored in the literature. In three interviews with people of varying backgrounds and competences, the views of the virtual technologies are assessed to provide insight in the industry. The findings of the literature review and interviews are among others, the apparent need for standardisation in the field and that a sought-after standard in the form of ISO 23247-1 is under way. Furthermore, the digital twin is a concept with a promising future in combination with other technologies of Industry 4.0. In conclusion, this thesis provides a deep review of the challenges and possibilities of virtual commissioning and the digital twin and could be used as starting point for further research in standardisations and improvements sprung from the new standard.

In this thesis, the trade-offs between latency and transmitted data volume in vehicle-to-cloud communication for different choices of application layer messaging protocols and binary serialization formats are studied. This is done with the purpose of getting enough performance improvement to enable delay-sensitive Intelligent Transport System (ITS) features, and to reduce data usage in mobile networks. The studied protocols are Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) and Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT), and the serialization formats studied are Protobuf and Flatbuffers.  The results show that CoAP — the only User Datagram Protocol (UDP) based protocol — has the lowest latency and overhead while not being able to guarantee reliable transfer. The best performer that can guarantee reliable transfer is MQTT. For the serialization formats, Protobuf is shown to have three times smaller serialized message size than Flatbuffers and also faster serialization speed. Flatbuffers is the winner in the case of memory use and deserialization time, which could make up for the poor performance in other aspects of data processing in the cloud. Further, the implications of these results in ITS communication are discussed suggestions made into future research topics.

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Along with the evolution of the new technologies such as industrial internet of things (IIoT), big data, cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), etc., the amalgamation between the cyber and physical worlds in the industrial field has become necessary to realize and achieve the smart factory and increase its productivity. The emergence of the Digital Twin (DT) concept as a technology that ties the physical and digital worlds has gained significant attention around the world during the last years. However, this concept is relatively new; the literature related to this concept is limited, and its application is still under development and requires further participation from both the industry and academia. This thesis project presented the main requirements and the steps for building a DT. Three research questions have been formulated and answered separately to fulfill the objective of this research study. The answer to the first two research questions was mainly based on surveying the scientific literature to explore this concept's background, main infrastructure, related technologies, its applications in the manufacturing domain, open issues, and some opportunities and challenges that hinder its implementation. Further, the answer to the last research question is represented in proposing a general methodology with some detailed steps for DT's building process and validating this methodology with an existing case study to show it works in practice. Further, several aspects needed for future work have also been addressed.

Den digitala tvillingen i fastighetsbranschen har ett stort användningsområde. Den kan avhjälpa arbeteinom exempelvis energioptimering och luftkvalitet samt användas som kommunikationskanal ochvisualisera resultat. Användaren söker ett resultat och den digitala tvillingen byggs utifrån dessakriterier. Detta betyder att tvillingen ser väldigt olika ut beroende på vad som förväntas av den. Denhjälper dels till med att sänka drift-, underhålls- och administrationskostnader men gör det ocksåenkelt för användaren att hämta en stor mängd information om fastigheten från ett ställe. Något somblir särskilt aktuellt i värderingsprocessen av fastigheten. Eftersom information annars måste hämtasfrån flera olika källor och sannolikheten för felaktiga värden blir stor. Syftet med studien är att skapa en djupare förståelse för hur den digitala tvillingen definieras inomfastighetsbranschen samt undersöka hur värderingsprocessen påverkas av fastighetens digitala tvilling.Frågeställningen besvaras med hjälp av intervjuer med människor som har kompetens i området.Definitionen av den digitala tvillingen skildras beroende på respondentens arbete men kopplingar kandras till delar som är av större eller mindre relevans. För tillfället används inte den digitala tvillingensom hjälpmedel i värderingsprocessen men har potential att i framtiden avhjälpainformationshantering och datainsamling. / The digital twin in the real estate industry has a wide range of applications. It can assist in areas suchas energy optimization and air quality, as well as serve as a communication channel and visualizeresults. The user seeks a result, and the digital twin is built based on these criteria. This means that thetwin can look different depending on what is expected from it. It helps reduce operational,maintenance, and administrative costs while also making it easy for the user to access a large amountof information about the property from one place. This becomes particularly relevant in the propertyvaluation process, as information would otherwise have to be gathered from multiple sources,increasing the likelihood of inaccuracies. The purpose of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of how the digital twin is defined in thereal estate industry and examine how the valuation process is influenced by the property's digital twin.The research question is answered through interviews with individuals who have expertise in the field.The definition of the digital twin varies depending on the respondent's work, but connections can bemade to aspects that are of greater or lesser relevance. Currently, the digital twin is not used as a toolin the valuation process but has the potential to assist in information management and data collectionin the future.

The municipalities' vision of using City Information Modeling (CIM) and Digital Twins (DT) inurban planning, requires prerequisites in place. A prerequisite is BIM, which together with GIS can create CIM.BIM implementation for a municipality involves major challenges and one such challenge is the lack of BIMmodels for existing buildings and infrastructure. However, this study is limited to planned development inconnection with land allocation. BIM implementation for the land allocation process within a medium-sizedSwedish municipality involves many involved actors and thus the need for a mobilization of the involved actorsfrom an ANT-inspired perspective. The purpose of this study is therefore to analyze how an actor network canbe mobilized to implement BIM in the land allocation process. A case study method has been chosen in thisthesis, considering that a well-defined case is identified, and the approach enables a variety of data collectionmethods that have been inspired by the autoethnographic approach because the researcher belongs to the focalactor in the process.