Introdução: O modelo teórico, no qual perfis extremos de desigualdade coexistem num cenário complexo promovendo desfechos de saúde similares, denominado “similaridades nas desigualdades”, surgiu de evidências em humanos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi propor um modelo animal para refletir o fenômeno "similaridades nas desigualdades". Métodos: As ratas prenhes foram randomizadas pelo peso corporal, mantidas individualmente e no dia 10 de gestação foram divididas em três grupos: Controle (Cont), que recebeu ração padrão à vontade; Restrição Alimentar 50% (R50%), que recebeu 50% do consumo do grupo controle e Dieta Rica em Gordura (RG), que recebeu uma dieta rica em gordura à vontade. Essas dietas foram oferecidas a partir do dia 10 de gestação até o dia 21 de lactação. Em até 24 horas após o nascimento, todos os filhotes foram adotados por outras mães, formando os seguintes grupos: Cont_Cont, R50%_Cont, R50%_R50%, Cont_R50%, RG_Cont, RG_RG, Cont_RG. Peso corporal e consumo alimentar das genitoras, peso ao nascer, peso ao longo da vida e exercício físico voluntário foram comparados entre grupos por Equação de Estimação Generalizada (GEE), usando diferentes modelos estatísticos. ANOVA de duas vias foi usada para avaliar os desfechos de gordura abdominal e medidas bioquímicas. Resultados: O peso corporal das genitoras Cont e RG foi maior, comparado ao peso das genitoras R50%. Além de alguns efeitos isolados da exposição às dietas R50% ou RG durante momentos específicos perinatais (gestação e/ou lactação), o efeito das "similaridades nas desigualdades" foi observado no peso ao nascer (ambos filhotes R50% e RG foram mais leves do que os Cont) e na atividade física (os grupos extremos R50%_Cont e RG_Cont foram igualmente diferentes do grupo de referência Cont_Cont, sendo machos menos ativos e fêmeas mais ativas). O acompanhamento do peso corporal ao longo da vida mostrou que os machos pesaram mais que as fêmeas. Nenhum dos três modelos estatísticos evidenciou diferenças entre grupos no total de gordura abdominal. Conclusão: Este estudo contribui com a idéia de que as desigualdades em saúde estão relacionadas a resultados similares em saúde para ambos os extremos populacionais, e propõe um modelo animal para explorar ainda mais este efeito. / Introduction: We have previously proposed a theoretical model in which extreme unequal social backgrounds coexist in a complex scenario promoting similar health outcomes, named “Similarities in the inequalities”, and had evidence of this effect in humans. Our objective was to propose an animal model to reflect the “Similarities in the inequalities” phenomenon. Methods: Rats were time-mated and randomly allocated to: Control (Adlib), receiving an ad libitum diet of standard laboratory chow, 50% food restricted (FR), receiving 50% of the ad libitum-fed dam’s intake and high fat diet (HF), receiving a diet containing 45.0% fat. These diets were provided from day 10 of pregnancy throughout the 21-day of lactation. Within 24 hours after birth, all pups were cross-fostered to other dams, forming the following groups: Adlib_Adlib, FR_Adlib, FR_FR, Adlib_FR, HF_Adlib, HF_HF, Adlib_HF. Dam’s body weight and show consumption, pup’s birth weight, growth and physical activity in running wheels, was compared between groups through GEE, using different statistical models. Twoway ANOVA was used to evaluate abdominal fat and biochemical outcomes. Results: Body weight of Adlib and HF dams was higher compared to FR dams. Apart from some isolated effects of the exposure to the FR or HF diets during specific perinatal times (gestation and/or lactation), the “Similarities in the inequalities” effect was seen in birth weight (both FR and HF pups were smaller than Adlib pups) and physical activity (the extreme groups FR_Adlib and HF_Adlib were similarly different from the reference group Adlib_Adlib, being less active in males and more active in females). Body weight monitoring throughout life showed that males were heavier than females. None of the three statistical models showed differences between groups in total abdominal fat. Conclusion: Our study contributes to the idea that health inequalities are related to similar health outcomes for both populational extremes, and proposes an animal model to further explore this effect.

Introdução: O modelo teórico, no qual perfis extremos de desigualdade coexistem num cenário complexo promovendo desfechos de saúde similares, denominado “similaridades nas desigualdades”, surgiu de evidências em humanos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi propor um modelo animal para refletir o fenômeno "similaridades nas desigualdades". Métodos: As ratas prenhes foram randomizadas pelo peso corporal, mantidas individualmente e no dia 10 de gestação foram divididas em três grupos: Controle (Cont), que recebeu ração padrão à vontade; Restrição Alimentar 50% (R50%), que recebeu 50% do consumo do grupo controle e Dieta Rica em Gordura (RG), que recebeu uma dieta rica em gordura à vontade. Essas dietas foram oferecidas a partir do dia 10 de gestação até o dia 21 de lactação. Em até 24 horas após o nascimento, todos os filhotes foram adotados por outras mães, formando os seguintes grupos: Cont_Cont, R50%_Cont, R50%_R50%, Cont_R50%, RG_Cont, RG_RG, Cont_RG. Peso corporal e consumo alimentar das genitoras, peso ao nascer, peso ao longo da vida e exercício físico voluntário foram comparados entre grupos por Equação de Estimação Generalizada (GEE), usando diferentes modelos estatísticos. ANOVA de duas vias foi usada para avaliar os desfechos de gordura abdominal e medidas bioquímicas. Resultados: O peso corporal das genitoras Cont e RG foi maior, comparado ao peso das genitoras R50%. Além de alguns efeitos isolados da exposição às dietas R50% ou RG durante momentos específicos perinatais (gestação e/ou lactação), o efeito das "similaridades nas desigualdades" foi observado no peso ao nascer (ambos filhotes R50% e RG foram mais leves do que os Cont) e na atividade física (os grupos extremos R50%_Cont e RG_Cont foram igualmente diferentes do grupo de referência Cont_Cont, sendo machos menos ativos e fêmeas mais ativas). O acompanhamento do peso corporal ao longo da vida mostrou que os machos pesaram mais que as fêmeas. Nenhum dos três modelos estatísticos evidenciou diferenças entre grupos no total de gordura abdominal. Conclusão: Este estudo contribui com a idéia de que as desigualdades em saúde estão relacionadas a resultados similares em saúde para ambos os extremos populacionais, e propõe um modelo animal para explorar ainda mais este efeito. / Introduction: We have previously proposed a theoretical model in which extreme unequal social backgrounds coexist in a complex scenario promoting similar health outcomes, named “Similarities in the inequalities”, and had evidence of this effect in humans. Our objective was to propose an animal model to reflect the “Similarities in the inequalities” phenomenon. Methods: Rats were time-mated and randomly allocated to: Control (Adlib), receiving an ad libitum diet of standard laboratory chow, 50% food restricted (FR), receiving 50% of the ad libitum-fed dam’s intake and high fat diet (HF), receiving a diet containing 45.0% fat. These diets were provided from day 10 of pregnancy throughout the 21-day of lactation. Within 24 hours after birth, all pups were cross-fostered to other dams, forming the following groups: Adlib_Adlib, FR_Adlib, FR_FR, Adlib_FR, HF_Adlib, HF_HF, Adlib_HF. Dam’s body weight and show consumption, pup’s birth weight, growth and physical activity in running wheels, was compared between groups through GEE, using different statistical models. Twoway ANOVA was used to evaluate abdominal fat and biochemical outcomes. Results: Body weight of Adlib and HF dams was higher compared to FR dams. Apart from some isolated effects of the exposure to the FR or HF diets during specific perinatal times (gestation and/or lactation), the “Similarities in the inequalities” effect was seen in birth weight (both FR and HF pups were smaller than Adlib pups) and physical activity (the extreme groups FR_Adlib and HF_Adlib were similarly different from the reference group Adlib_Adlib, being less active in males and more active in females). Body weight monitoring throughout life showed that males were heavier than females. None of the three statistical models showed differences between groups in total abdominal fat. Conclusion: Our study contributes to the idea that health inequalities are related to similar health outcomes for both populational extremes, and proposes an animal model to further explore this effect.

Introdução: O modelo teórico, no qual perfis extremos de desigualdade coexistem num cenário complexo promovendo desfechos de saúde similares, denominado “similaridades nas desigualdades”, surgiu de evidências em humanos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi propor um modelo animal para refletir o fenômeno "similaridades nas desigualdades". Métodos: As ratas prenhes foram randomizadas pelo peso corporal, mantidas individualmente e no dia 10 de gestação foram divididas em três grupos: Controle (Cont), que recebeu ração padrão à vontade; Restrição Alimentar 50% (R50%), que recebeu 50% do consumo do grupo controle e Dieta Rica em Gordura (RG), que recebeu uma dieta rica em gordura à vontade. Essas dietas foram oferecidas a partir do dia 10 de gestação até o dia 21 de lactação. Em até 24 horas após o nascimento, todos os filhotes foram adotados por outras mães, formando os seguintes grupos: Cont_Cont, R50%_Cont, R50%_R50%, Cont_R50%, RG_Cont, RG_RG, Cont_RG. Peso corporal e consumo alimentar das genitoras, peso ao nascer, peso ao longo da vida e exercício físico voluntário foram comparados entre grupos por Equação de Estimação Generalizada (GEE), usando diferentes modelos estatísticos. ANOVA de duas vias foi usada para avaliar os desfechos de gordura abdominal e medidas bioquímicas. Resultados: O peso corporal das genitoras Cont e RG foi maior, comparado ao peso das genitoras R50%. Além de alguns efeitos isolados da exposição às dietas R50% ou RG durante momentos específicos perinatais (gestação e/ou lactação), o efeito das "similaridades nas desigualdades" foi observado no peso ao nascer (ambos filhotes R50% e RG foram mais leves do que os Cont) e na atividade física (os grupos extremos R50%_Cont e RG_Cont foram igualmente diferentes do grupo de referência Cont_Cont, sendo machos menos ativos e fêmeas mais ativas). O acompanhamento do peso corporal ao longo da vida mostrou que os machos pesaram mais que as fêmeas. Nenhum dos três modelos estatísticos evidenciou diferenças entre grupos no total de gordura abdominal. Conclusão: Este estudo contribui com a idéia de que as desigualdades em saúde estão relacionadas a resultados similares em saúde para ambos os extremos populacionais, e propõe um modelo animal para explorar ainda mais este efeito. / Introduction: We have previously proposed a theoretical model in which extreme unequal social backgrounds coexist in a complex scenario promoting similar health outcomes, named “Similarities in the inequalities”, and had evidence of this effect in humans. Our objective was to propose an animal model to reflect the “Similarities in the inequalities” phenomenon. Methods: Rats were time-mated and randomly allocated to: Control (Adlib), receiving an ad libitum diet of standard laboratory chow, 50% food restricted (FR), receiving 50% of the ad libitum-fed dam’s intake and high fat diet (HF), receiving a diet containing 45.0% fat. These diets were provided from day 10 of pregnancy throughout the 21-day of lactation. Within 24 hours after birth, all pups were cross-fostered to other dams, forming the following groups: Adlib_Adlib, FR_Adlib, FR_FR, Adlib_FR, HF_Adlib, HF_HF, Adlib_HF. Dam’s body weight and show consumption, pup’s birth weight, growth and physical activity in running wheels, was compared between groups through GEE, using different statistical models. Twoway ANOVA was used to evaluate abdominal fat and biochemical outcomes. Results: Body weight of Adlib and HF dams was higher compared to FR dams. Apart from some isolated effects of the exposure to the FR or HF diets during specific perinatal times (gestation and/or lactation), the “Similarities in the inequalities” effect was seen in birth weight (both FR and HF pups were smaller than Adlib pups) and physical activity (the extreme groups FR_Adlib and HF_Adlib were similarly different from the reference group Adlib_Adlib, being less active in males and more active in females). Body weight monitoring throughout life showed that males were heavier than females. None of the three statistical models showed differences between groups in total abdominal fat. Conclusion: Our study contributes to the idea that health inequalities are related to similar health outcomes for both populational extremes, and proposes an animal model to further explore this effect.

Puerto Rico has the highest prevalence of type 2 diabetes, low birth-weight, and the second highest prevalence of preterm-birth in all the U.S. and its non-incorporated territories. These conditions are related. Birth-weight at both ends of the spectrum and preterm-birth are associated with an increased risk for developing type 2 diabetes and immune-inflammatory dysregulations. Maternal psychosocial stressors during pregnancy have also been recognized as potential risk factors for type 2 diabetes, and have been consistently associated with preterm-birth and low birth-weight across populations. Current evidence points toward epigenetic fetal metabolic-programming as the mechanism that underlies the increased risk for the previously mentioned morbidities. However, the particular psychosocial stressors that may contribute to the high prevalence of low birth-weight and preterm-birth in the population of Puerto Rico have not been well studied. The present study assesses the relationships between particular psychosocial stressors, socioeconomic status, food insecurity, and birth outcomes. The results of this study show that low-risk pregnancy women were more likely to have babies with a higher ponderal index if they were exposed to stressors during gestation months 5, 6, and 7, or if exposed to "relationship stress" at any time during pregnancy. Women exposed to "financial difficulties" at any time during pregnancy were more likely to deliver babies at an earlier gestational age. Differences in birth outcomes between the exposed and non-exposed women were independent of maternal anthropometric measurements, maternal age at birth, number of previous births, and sex of the baby. Significant differences in birth outcomes were found between categories of father's self-identified and identified by others ethnicity, but sample size within categories was small. Although mothers with children at home had higher levels of food insecurity, and the level of food insecurity was correlated with higher levels of stress, no birth outcome measure was associated with food insecurity. Some results are atypical in comparison with other populations, and therefore these findings may contribute to the understanding of population differences in the relationship between maternal stress during pregnancy and birth outcomes. The relatively small sample size and strict exclusion criteria of this study may limit the generalizability of the findings. Epidemiological similarities between Puerto Rico and other populations, and the possibility of a higher ponderal index increasing the risk for type 2 diabetes in the population of Puerto Rico need to be examined in future research.

Alimentação hedônica e homeostática são fatores independentes envolvidos no desenvolvimento da obesidade. Apesar de já se saber que a superalimentação precoce altera a alimentação não hedônica na vida adulta, pouco se sabe sobre seu impacto sobre a preferência por alimentos doces. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de verificar o comportamento alimentar de ratos superalimentados no período de lactação, com foco principalmente no comportamento alimentar hedônico, e correlacionar com o funcionamento do sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico, que sabidamente está envolvido na sua regulação. Ninhadas de ratos foram reduzidas a 4 filhotes (ninhada pequena - SL) ou 8 filhotes (ninhada normal - NL) no dia 1 de vida. O desmame ocorreu no dia 21, e todos os testes foram realizados a partir do dia 84 de vida. O consumo de ração foi realizado em condições basais, em resposta à jejum de 24h, na presença de comida palatável (doce), durante isolamento social, e em resposta ao teste de pinçamento da cauda (tail-pinch). Antes de testados com alimento doce, os ratos foram habituados a esse alimento. Locomoção foi aferida em um aparato automatizado. A Área Tegmentar Ventral (VTA) e o Núcleo Accumbens (Acc) foram dissecados a partir de microfatias congeladas. Tecido muscular foi dissecado e processado para medida da fosforilação de AKT (p-AKT) em resposta à insulina. AKT, p-AKT e Tirosina Hidroxilase (TH) foram medidas por método de western-blot. A quantidade de gordura abdominal foi cuidadosamente dissecada e pesada. Resultados: Ratos SL foram mais pesados que os NL em todas as medidas, e ao sacrifício apresentavam maior gordura abdominal (p=0,035). A atividade locomotora não foi diferente quanto à distância percorrida, mas os ratos SL exploraram a região central por mais tempo, indicando menor comportamento ansioso (p=0,036). Não se encontrou diferenças quanto ao consumo de ração padrão (p=0.085) ou alimento doce em condições basais (p=0,65), mas ratos SL tiveram maior consumo de doce num paradigma de escolha com ração-padrão (p=0,017) e em resposta ao estresse de pinçamento da cauda (interação teste x grupo, p=0,006). TH encontrou-se aumentada em ratos SL, tanto no VTA (p=0.016) quanto no Acc (p=0,022). Ratos SL não diferiram quanto a fosforilação do AKT no músculo, porém tiveram menor AKT (p=0,047), o que sugere uma resistência periférica à insulina latente. Em conclusão, a exposição a superalimentação no período de lactação reduz a ansiedade, induz obesidade e programa o comportamento alimentar persistentemente, de maneira que esses animais têm maior preferência por alimento doce. A esses resultados se soma a alteração dos níveis de TH nas vias mesolímbicas, o que sugere a participação destas nessa alteração de comportamento. / Hedonic and homeostatic food intakes are independent factors involved in the development of obesity. Although it is well known that early life overfeeding increases food intake in adulthood, little is know about its impact on the palatable food preference in adulthood. We aimed at verifying feeding behavior in this model, with special focus in the hedonic compound, and correlate it to the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway known to be involved in its regulation. Rat litters were standardized to 4 (small litter - SL) or 8 pups (normal litter- NL) at postnatal day 1. Weaning was at day 21, and all tests were conducted after day 84 of life. Chow consumption was measured at baseline, in response to 24h fasting, in the presence of palatable food, during social isolation and after 1 min. tail pinch stress. Prior to testing sweet food, rats were habituated to the sweet pellets. Locomotion was assessed in an automated box. The ventral tegmentar area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens were micro dissected from frozen brain slices. Muscular tissue was also dissected for assessing the phosphorylation of Akt in response to an insulin challenge. Akt, pAkt and TH proteins were assessed by Western-blot. The abdominal fat content was weighed. Results: SL rats were heavier than NL at all time points and had increased abdominal fat at sacrifice (p=0.035). Locomotor activity was not different with regard to total distance, but RL rats spent more time in the center of the box, an indicative of less anxiety (p=0.036). No difference was found in chow (p=0.085) or sweet food intake at baseline (p=0.65), but SL rats had higher intake of sweet pellets in a two food choice paradigm (p=0.017) and in response to tail pinch stress (test x group interaction, p=0.006). TH was higher in SL rats VTA (p=0.016) and in the nucleus accumbens (p=0.022). SL animals had decreased Akt in the muscle (p=0.047), which suggest a latent peripheral insulin resistance, but p-AKT and the AKT/p-AKT ratio were not different. In conclusion, exposure to overfeeding during the neonatal period decreases anxiety, induces obesity and programs the feeding behavior persistently, in such a way that the animals eat more palatable food. These results are associated with a higher TH protein content and transport in these animals, which suggests that the dopaminergic mesolimbic circuitry may involved in the behavioral findings.

Alimentação hedônica e homeostática são fatores independentes envolvidos no desenvolvimento da obesidade. Apesar de já se saber que a superalimentação precoce altera a alimentação não hedônica na vida adulta, pouco se sabe sobre seu impacto sobre a preferência por alimentos doces. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de verificar o comportamento alimentar de ratos superalimentados no período de lactação, com foco principalmente no comportamento alimentar hedônico, e correlacionar com o funcionamento do sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico, que sabidamente está envolvido na sua regulação. Ninhadas de ratos foram reduzidas a 4 filhotes (ninhada pequena - SL) ou 8 filhotes (ninhada normal - NL) no dia 1 de vida. O desmame ocorreu no dia 21, e todos os testes foram realizados a partir do dia 84 de vida. O consumo de ração foi realizado em condições basais, em resposta à jejum de 24h, na presença de comida palatável (doce), durante isolamento social, e em resposta ao teste de pinçamento da cauda (tail-pinch). Antes de testados com alimento doce, os ratos foram habituados a esse alimento. Locomoção foi aferida em um aparato automatizado. A Área Tegmentar Ventral (VTA) e o Núcleo Accumbens (Acc) foram dissecados a partir de microfatias congeladas. Tecido muscular foi dissecado e processado para medida da fosforilação de AKT (p-AKT) em resposta à insulina. AKT, p-AKT e Tirosina Hidroxilase (TH) foram medidas por método de western-blot. A quantidade de gordura abdominal foi cuidadosamente dissecada e pesada. Resultados: Ratos SL foram mais pesados que os NL em todas as medidas, e ao sacrifício apresentavam maior gordura abdominal (p=0,035). A atividade locomotora não foi diferente quanto à distância percorrida, mas os ratos SL exploraram a região central por mais tempo, indicando menor comportamento ansioso (p=0,036). Não se encontrou diferenças quanto ao consumo de ração padrão (p=0.085) ou alimento doce em condições basais (p=0,65), mas ratos SL tiveram maior consumo de doce num paradigma de escolha com ração-padrão (p=0,017) e em resposta ao estresse de pinçamento da cauda (interação teste x grupo, p=0,006). TH encontrou-se aumentada em ratos SL, tanto no VTA (p=0.016) quanto no Acc (p=0,022). Ratos SL não diferiram quanto a fosforilação do AKT no músculo, porém tiveram menor AKT (p=0,047), o que sugere uma resistência periférica à insulina latente. Em conclusão, a exposição a superalimentação no período de lactação reduz a ansiedade, induz obesidade e programa o comportamento alimentar persistentemente, de maneira que esses animais têm maior preferência por alimento doce. A esses resultados se soma a alteração dos níveis de TH nas vias mesolímbicas, o que sugere a participação destas nessa alteração de comportamento. / Hedonic and homeostatic food intakes are independent factors involved in the development of obesity. Although it is well known that early life overfeeding increases food intake in adulthood, little is know about its impact on the palatable food preference in adulthood. We aimed at verifying feeding behavior in this model, with special focus in the hedonic compound, and correlate it to the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway known to be involved in its regulation. Rat litters were standardized to 4 (small litter - SL) or 8 pups (normal litter- NL) at postnatal day 1. Weaning was at day 21, and all tests were conducted after day 84 of life. Chow consumption was measured at baseline, in response to 24h fasting, in the presence of palatable food, during social isolation and after 1 min. tail pinch stress. Prior to testing sweet food, rats were habituated to the sweet pellets. Locomotion was assessed in an automated box. The ventral tegmentar area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens were micro dissected from frozen brain slices. Muscular tissue was also dissected for assessing the phosphorylation of Akt in response to an insulin challenge. Akt, pAkt and TH proteins were assessed by Western-blot. The abdominal fat content was weighed. Results: SL rats were heavier than NL at all time points and had increased abdominal fat at sacrifice (p=0.035). Locomotor activity was not different with regard to total distance, but RL rats spent more time in the center of the box, an indicative of less anxiety (p=0.036). No difference was found in chow (p=0.085) or sweet food intake at baseline (p=0.65), but SL rats had higher intake of sweet pellets in a two food choice paradigm (p=0.017) and in response to tail pinch stress (test x group interaction, p=0.006). TH was higher in SL rats VTA (p=0.016) and in the nucleus accumbens (p=0.022). SL animals had decreased Akt in the muscle (p=0.047), which suggest a latent peripheral insulin resistance, but p-AKT and the AKT/p-AKT ratio were not different. In conclusion, exposure to overfeeding during the neonatal period decreases anxiety, induces obesity and programs the feeding behavior persistently, in such a way that the animals eat more palatable food. These results are associated with a higher TH protein content and transport in these animals, which suggests that the dopaminergic mesolimbic circuitry may involved in the behavioral findings.

Alimentação hedônica e homeostática são fatores independentes envolvidos no desenvolvimento da obesidade. Apesar de já se saber que a superalimentação precoce altera a alimentação não hedônica na vida adulta, pouco se sabe sobre seu impacto sobre a preferência por alimentos doces. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de verificar o comportamento alimentar de ratos superalimentados no período de lactação, com foco principalmente no comportamento alimentar hedônico, e correlacionar com o funcionamento do sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico, que sabidamente está envolvido na sua regulação. Ninhadas de ratos foram reduzidas a 4 filhotes (ninhada pequena - SL) ou 8 filhotes (ninhada normal - NL) no dia 1 de vida. O desmame ocorreu no dia 21, e todos os testes foram realizados a partir do dia 84 de vida. O consumo de ração foi realizado em condições basais, em resposta à jejum de 24h, na presença de comida palatável (doce), durante isolamento social, e em resposta ao teste de pinçamento da cauda (tail-pinch). Antes de testados com alimento doce, os ratos foram habituados a esse alimento. Locomoção foi aferida em um aparato automatizado. A Área Tegmentar Ventral (VTA) e o Núcleo Accumbens (Acc) foram dissecados a partir de microfatias congeladas. Tecido muscular foi dissecado e processado para medida da fosforilação de AKT (p-AKT) em resposta à insulina. AKT, p-AKT e Tirosina Hidroxilase (TH) foram medidas por método de western-blot. A quantidade de gordura abdominal foi cuidadosamente dissecada e pesada. Resultados: Ratos SL foram mais pesados que os NL em todas as medidas, e ao sacrifício apresentavam maior gordura abdominal (p=0,035). A atividade locomotora não foi diferente quanto à distância percorrida, mas os ratos SL exploraram a região central por mais tempo, indicando menor comportamento ansioso (p=0,036). Não se encontrou diferenças quanto ao consumo de ração padrão (p=0.085) ou alimento doce em condições basais (p=0,65), mas ratos SL tiveram maior consumo de doce num paradigma de escolha com ração-padrão (p=0,017) e em resposta ao estresse de pinçamento da cauda (interação teste x grupo, p=0,006). TH encontrou-se aumentada em ratos SL, tanto no VTA (p=0.016) quanto no Acc (p=0,022). Ratos SL não diferiram quanto a fosforilação do AKT no músculo, porém tiveram menor AKT (p=0,047), o que sugere uma resistência periférica à insulina latente. Em conclusão, a exposição a superalimentação no período de lactação reduz a ansiedade, induz obesidade e programa o comportamento alimentar persistentemente, de maneira que esses animais têm maior preferência por alimento doce. A esses resultados se soma a alteração dos níveis de TH nas vias mesolímbicas, o que sugere a participação destas nessa alteração de comportamento. / Hedonic and homeostatic food intakes are independent factors involved in the development of obesity. Although it is well known that early life overfeeding increases food intake in adulthood, little is know about its impact on the palatable food preference in adulthood. We aimed at verifying feeding behavior in this model, with special focus in the hedonic compound, and correlate it to the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway known to be involved in its regulation. Rat litters were standardized to 4 (small litter - SL) or 8 pups (normal litter- NL) at postnatal day 1. Weaning was at day 21, and all tests were conducted after day 84 of life. Chow consumption was measured at baseline, in response to 24h fasting, in the presence of palatable food, during social isolation and after 1 min. tail pinch stress. Prior to testing sweet food, rats were habituated to the sweet pellets. Locomotion was assessed in an automated box. The ventral tegmentar area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens were micro dissected from frozen brain slices. Muscular tissue was also dissected for assessing the phosphorylation of Akt in response to an insulin challenge. Akt, pAkt and TH proteins were assessed by Western-blot. The abdominal fat content was weighed. Results: SL rats were heavier than NL at all time points and had increased abdominal fat at sacrifice (p=0.035). Locomotor activity was not different with regard to total distance, but RL rats spent more time in the center of the box, an indicative of less anxiety (p=0.036). No difference was found in chow (p=0.085) or sweet food intake at baseline (p=0.65), but SL rats had higher intake of sweet pellets in a two food choice paradigm (p=0.017) and in response to tail pinch stress (test x group interaction, p=0.006). TH was higher in SL rats VTA (p=0.016) and in the nucleus accumbens (p=0.022). SL animals had decreased Akt in the muscle (p=0.047), which suggest a latent peripheral insulin resistance, but p-AKT and the AKT/p-AKT ratio were not different. In conclusion, exposure to overfeeding during the neonatal period decreases anxiety, induces obesity and programs the feeding behavior persistently, in such a way that the animals eat more palatable food. These results are associated with a higher TH protein content and transport in these animals, which suggests that the dopaminergic mesolimbic circuitry may involved in the behavioral findings.

Les problèmes de santé liés à l’alimentation hyperlipidique chez l’humain sont en constante progression. Or, une perturbation de l’environnement fœtal induit chez la descendance une susceptibilité plus grande à développer des maladies à l’âge adulte (DOHad : Developmental Origins of Health and Disease). L’objectif de ce travail de Thèse est d’évaluer, chez le lapin, les conséquences d’une alimentation hypercholestérolémique et hyperlipidique sur le développement embryonnaire, fœtal, et la survenue de troubles métaboliques à long terme.Nous avons nourri des lapines ad libitum avec un régime hypercholéstérolémique (0,2%) et hyperlipidique (8%) (HH) ou un régime témoin (C) à partir de l'âge de 10 (expérience 1) ou de 18 semaines (age de la mise à la reproduction, expérience 2). A la naissance, les portées ont été équilibrées et des croisements effectués pour différencier l'effet de l'alimentation de la mère pendant la gestation et pendant la lactation. Ainsi des lapereaux nés de mères HH ont été allaités par des mères C (groupe HH-C) ou HH (groupe HH-HH) et des lapereaux nés de mère C ont été allaités par des mères C (groupe C-C) ou HH (groupe C-HH). Au cours de l’expérience 1, un retard de croissance intra utérin (RCIU) significatif a été mis en évidence dès 9 jours de gestation par échographie dans le groupe HH (P<0,05). A la naissance, les laperaux étaient significativement plus légers (P<0,05). En raison d’un rattrapage pondéral rapide, il n’existait plus de différence significative au sevrage. Tous les lapins ont alors reçu un aliment témoin distribué ad libitum. A J176, il n’y avait pas de différence de poids entre les groupes HH-HH et HH-C, mais les animaux de ces deux groupes étaient significativement plus lourds que les groupes C-C and C-HH (P<0.05). De plus, la tension artérielle était plus élevée dans le groupe HH-HH par rapport à tous les autres groupes (P<0.05). Au cours de l’expérience 2, de tels effets physiologiques n’ont pas été observés. Les effets physiologiques n'ayant été observés que lorsque le régime avait été commencé avant la gestation, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que l'environnement maternel précoce avait été modifié, entrainant une perturbation du développement embryonnaire à l'origine des conséquences à long terme. l’expression des gènes au moment de la mise en route du génome embryonnaire a été étudié à l’aide d’une puce dédiée. L’analyse transcriptomique a permis de suggérer que certains transcrits étaient présents en quantités différentes. Nous avons montré par qRT-PCR que le régime HH induit une augmentation transitoire de la quantité de transcrit de l’adipophiline (présente à J2 mais pas à J5,5). L’analyse immunohistochimique montre une quantité plus importante de gouttelettes lipidiques localisées près du noyau dans les embryons issus de mères nourries par le régime HH à J5,5 comparé aux témoins. Ces résultats illustrent l’importance de la nutrition avant et pendant la gestation pour la determination de la croissance in utero et postnatale, ainsi que pour le développement de maladies métaboliques à long terme. La nutrition maternelle avant la gestation peut engendrer des modifications d’expression de gènes au moment de la transmission materno embryonnaire. / The prevalence of human health problems associated with high-fat diets continues to rise, as does the number of such problems known to be associated with this diet. Disruption of the fetal environment induces in progeny a greater susceptibility to developing diseases in adulthood (DOHad: Developmental Origins of Health and Disease). The objective of the work for this thesis was to assess in rabbits the consequences of a high-cholesterol and high-fat diet on embryonic and fetal development and on the onset of metabolic disorders in the long term.We fed rabbits ad libitum with a high-cholesterol (0.2%) and high-fat (8%) (HH) diet or a control (C) diet, starting at the age of 10 (experiment 1) or 18 weeks (age at which reproduction began, experiment 2).The litters were balanced at birth, and crossings were performed to differentiate the effect of the mother's food during gestation and during lactation. Accordingly, rabbits born to HH mothers were nursed by C (HH-C group) or HH (HH-HH) mothers and those born to C mothers were nursed either by C (C-C) or HH (C-HH) mothers. During experiment 1, ultrasound clearly showed significant intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) beginning at 9 days of gestation in the HH group (P<0.05). At birth, these rabbits weighed significantly less than their C counterparts (P<0.05). Because of their rapid weight catch-up, the significant difference had disappeared at weaning. All the rabbits thereafter received control food distributed ad libitum. At D176, there was no difference in weight between the HH-HH and HH-C groups but the animals in both these groups were significantly heavier than those in the C-C and C-HH groups (P<0.05). Moreover, blood pressure was higher in the HH-HH group than in any of the other groups (P<0.05). These physiological effects were not observed during experiment 2. Because the physiological effects were observed only when the diet began before gestation, we hypothesized that the early maternal environment been modified, a change that resulted in disruption of embryo development with long-term consequences. We then used a specially designed chip to study gene expression at the maternal to embryonic transition. Transcriptomic analysis suggested that some transcripts were present in different quantities. We showed with qRT-PCR that the HH diet induced a transient augmentation in the quantity of adipophilin transcripts (present at D2 but not at D5.5). The immunohistochemical analysis on D5.5 showed a higher quantity of lipid droplets localized near the nucleus of embryos from mothers fed with the HH diet than in embryos of control mothers. These results illustrate the importance of nutrition before and during pregnancy in the determination of in utero and postnatal growth as well as in the development of metabolic diseases over the long term. Maternal nutrition before conception can engender modifications in gene expression at the moment of the maternal to embryonic transition.

Cette thèse explore la Première Guerre mondiale comme modèle historique de stress psychologique subi dans l'enfance. L'Hypothèse d'Origine Développementale des Maladies (DOHaD) prévoit une susceptibilité accrue aux maladies chroniques à l'âge adulte des individus exposés à des événements traumatiques aux premiers stades du développement. Nous avons constitué une cohorte d'orphelins nés en 1914-1916, et ce grâce au statut de "pupilles de la Nation", créé par une loi de 1917 et accordé sur requête à tous les orphelins, quel que soit le statut socioéconomique de la famille. L'attribution du statut de pupille était inscrite en marge de l'acte de naissance. Les registres de naissance ont donc permis un recensement exhaustif de tous les pupilles nés dans les villes incluses ainsi qu'un suivi de la mortalité à l'âge adulte. Les actes de naissance de 7,250 pupilles ont été transcrits à ce jour. L'appel à la Base des Morts pour la France a fourni la date de décès du père, et donc sa position dans le calendrier de développement de l'enfant. Des matched non-orphans (MNOs) ont été sélectionnés dans les mêmes registres. Le critère d'intérêt était la longévité de ceux ayant atteint l'âge de 31 ans. Un écart orphelin - MNO de ~ 2.5 années a été trouvé en cas de perte prénatale du père, mais aucune différence n'a été mise en évidence dans le cas d'une perte postnatale. La conjonction de ces deux résultats suggère qu'un traumatisme in utero a un effet de programmation de la susceptibilité biologique à l'âge adulte assez fort pour altérer la longévité. / This thesis explores the First World War as a historical model in early life psychological stress. The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis predicts increased susceptibility to chronic diseases in adulthood for those exposed to an extreme psychological trauma in very early life. We collected vital information on French orphans born 1914-1916 thanks to the “pupille de la Nation” distinction, a legal status created in 1917 and granted upon request to all orphans. Notification of “adoption by the Nation” was by law inscribed on the birth certificate of a newly adopted child. Birth registers thus provided a census of all pupilles born in the included cities during the inclusion period as well as long-term mortality follow-up. The birth certificates of 7,250 pupilles have been digitized. Call to the Died for France Database enabled us to retrieve the paternal date of death. Matched non-orphans (MNOs) were drawn from the same birth registers. For each orphan, his MNO was therefore chosen born in the same district at the same time. The outcome of interest was longevity of those who survived to 31 y. An orphan-MNO difference in adult longevity of ~2.5 years was found for orphans who had lost their father before) birth (prenatal orphans), but no difference in adult longevity could be measured between postnatal orphans and their MNOs. These two results suggest early trauma in utero has programming effects on biological susceptibility in adulthood strong enough to alter longevity. The fact that no loss of lifespan was found in the case of a postnatal loss of father further suggests efficient buffers to early postnatal stress existed in French society.

Problématique : Durant la période fœtale, le métabolisme global du fœtus fonctionne en hypoxie, ce qui limite la phosphorylation oxydative dans la mitochondrie, et par conséquent la production d’adénosine triphosphate (ATP). Ces conditions sont nécessaires pour le développement intra-utérin. Lors de la naissance, l’augmentation des concentrations d’oxygène et un stress oxydatif permettent une transition métabolique. Une charge oxydative supplémentaire en période néonatale pourrait perturber cette transition métabolique et causer des complications. La nutrition parentérale (NP) administrée aux nouveau-nés prématurés apporte un triple fardeau oxydatif : une exposition à des peroxydes oxydants autogénérés par l’interaction des composants de la NP, une carence en vitamine C (instable en solution), et une déficience en glutathion, vu la charge oxydative élevée. Cette charge oxydative excessive affecte l’homéostasie redox au foie et aux poumons, ainsi que le métabolisme énergétique hépatique, et ce, par des effets immédiats et à long-terme. La méthylation de l’ADN est un possible mécanisme qui explique les effets à long terme. Le but de ce travail était de caractériser l’impact à court- et long-terme de la NP néonatale sur l’homéostasie redox, la méthylation de l’ADN, et le métabolisme des glucides et lipides, en isolant chacun des facteurs nutritionnels. Méthodes : Des cochons d’Inde ont été divisés dans les groupes suivants 1) NP : nutrition intraveineuse complète ; 2) NP+ glutathion disulfure (GSSG) (6 ou 12µM- substrat pour la synthèse intra-cellulaire de glutathion); 3) Diète complète : nutrition orale complète 4) Diète déficiente en Vitamine C; 5) Diète déficiente en Cystéine; 6) Diète double déficiente; ou. À 1 semaine de vie, la moitié des animaux était sacrifié et l’autre moitié a commencé à manger une diète complète jusqu’à l’âge adulte. Résultats et discussion : Les animaux ayant reçu une NP néonatale ont un métabolisme énergétique permettant la synthèse de nicotinamide adénine dinucléotide phosphate (NADPH) par l’augmentation de l’activité de la glucokinase (captation de glucose), et diminution de celles de la phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) (glycolyse) et acétyl-CoA-carboxylase-1 (ACC)(lipogenèse). À l’âge adulte, les animaux ont une diminution des niveaux de GSSG, indiquant un débalancement de l’homéostasie redox vers le côté réducteur programmé par la NP néonatale. L’activité augmentée de l’ACC suggère une tendance à accumuler les lipides au foie à la suite d’une diète riche en glucides. L’ajout de glutathion à la NP ne prévient pas ces perturbations, car les déficiences en glutathion et vitamine C jouent un rôle sur la modulation des niveaux protéiques de l’ACC. Les diètes néonatales déficientes en vitamine C et cystéine augmentent l’activité de la PFK-1. Cette augmentation se maintient jusqu’à l’âge adulte chez les mâles, mais pas chez les femelles. Les niveaux protéiques de la glucokinase et ACC sont diminués à 1 semaine, et ceux de l’ACC sont élevés à 3 mois dans les groupes ayant reçu une des diètes déficientes. Ces effets sont similaires à ceux trouvés dans les animaux nourris avec la NP, suggérant que la déficience de la NP en ces nutriments et non les peroxydes cause ces effets. Dans tous les groupes, un stress oxydatif a été démontré à 1 semaine de vie, soit par l’augmentation des niveaux de GSSG, ou la diminution du GSH. Cet effet est vrai pour le foie et le poumon. Une réponse de Nrf2 est observée aussi au foie, ce qui caractérise un niveau bas de stress oxydatif. La baisse de GSH pulmonaire chez les animaux déficients est secondaire à l’inhibition oxydative de la voie de transméthylation au foie. Une diminution des niveaux d’ARNm de glutathion réductase et glutarédoxine sont observées, ce qui favorise encore le stress oxydatif pulmonaire. À long terme, les effets sont les opposés, soit débalancement de l’homéostasie redox vers le côté réducteur au foie et poumon. La méthylation de l’ADN était diminuée au foie des animaux nouveau-nés recevant les diètes déficientes, mais aucun changement n’a été observé aux poumons. Cette diminution est en accord avec les hauts niveaux d’ARNm des gènes de la protéine régulatrice de la glucokinase, et AMPK. À long-terme, l’effet inverse est observé pour la méthylation de l’ADN Conclusion : La NP modifie le flot d’énergie au foie à 1 semaine visant favoriser le métabolisme redox en détriment du métabolisme énergétique. Cet effet semble créer une déficience énergétique fonctionnelle, qui se développe en une lipogenèse accrue en âge adulte. Cela peut représenter un exemple de la plasticité développementale. Bien qu’un stress oxydatif en âge néonatal ne soit pas létal, il affecte le métabolisme énergétique et redox à long-terme, probablement par la méthylation de l’ADN. Les résultats de ce travail démontrent que ces animaux adultes ont une capacité accrue d’entreposer de l’énergie, soit par une lipogenèse plus élevée, soit par une accumulation d’énergie redox (glutathion). Aucune maladie métabolique n’était observée chez les animaux, mais il est attendu à ce que ces animaux développent ces maladies plus facilement suite à l’exposition à des insultes (habitudes de vie malsaines, tabagisme, etc.). / Problematic: During the fetal period, the general metabolism works under hypoxia, limiting oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and adenine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. These conditions are necessary for intrauterine development. After birth, the increasing oxygen concentrations and the associated oxidative stress induce a metabolic transition. An excessive oxidative load during the neonatal period could perturb this transition. Parenteral nutrition (PN) administered to premature newborns comes with a triple oxidative burden: contaminating peroxides generated in solution, vitamin C deficiency (unstable in solution), and glutathione deficiency (caused by the high oxidative load). This oxidative load affects redox homoeostasis in the liver and lungs, as well as energy metabolism in the liver. These effects are not only immediate, but they are also delayed. DNA methylation is a candidate mechanism explaining the long-term effects. The objective of this work was to characterize the short- and long-term impacts of neonatal PN over redox homoeostasis, DNA methylation and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism by isolating each of these factors. Methods: Six groups of three-day-old guinea pigs received for 4 days either: 1) Total PN; 2) PN+glutathione disulfide (GSSG) (6 or 12µM-anti-peroxide);3) Vitamin C deficient; 4) Cysteine deficient; 5) Double deficient; or 6) Complete diets. At 1 week of life, half of the animals were sacrificed, and the other half started eating nutritionally complete diets until adulthood. Results and discussion: NP animals had energy metabolism shifted favouring nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) synthesis, as evidenced by the increase in glucokinase activity (glucose trapping in hepatocytes) and decrease in phosphfuctokinase-1 (PFK-1) (glycolysis) and acetyl-CoA-carboxyalase-1 (ACC) (lipogenesis) activities. Adding GSSG to parenteral nutrition prevents these changes. During adulthood, ACC activity is increased, suggesting a tendency to accumulate lipids after a diet rich in carbohydrates. Adding GSSG to PN does not prevent these changes as they seem to be caused by the nutritional deficiencies in vitamin C and cysteine. Neonatal diets deficient in vitamin C and cysteine increase PFK-1 activity. This increase is maintained until adulthood in males but not in females. Protein levels of glucokinase and ACC are decreased at 1 week of life and ACC levels are increased at adulthood in deficient groups. These effects are like the ones observed in PN animals. In all groups, oxidative stress is demonstrated in 1-week-old animals, either by an increase in GSSG levels, or a decrease in GSH. This is true for the liver and lungs. An Nrf2 response is also observed in the liver, suggesting a low level of oxidative stress. The decrease in lung GSH is secondary to the oxidative inhibition of the transmethylation pathway in the liver. Decreased levels of glutathione reductase and glutaredoxin mRNA levels are observed in lungs, favouring pulmonary oxidative stress. At adulthood, an imbalance in redox homeostasis towards a reducing state is observed in lungs and liver. DNA methylation was decreased in the liver of deficient animals at 1-week, but no changes were observed in lungs. This decrease is in accordance with the decrease in mRNA levels of glucokinase regulatory protein and AMPK. At adulthood, the opposite effect was observed for DNA methylation. Conclusion: Parenteral nutrition alters the energy flow in the liver of 1-week-old animals, favouring redox metabolism over energy metabolism. This effect seems to create a phenotype of functional energy deficiency which translates into an increased lipogenesis at adult age. This may be an example of developmental plasticity. Although neonatal oxidative stress is not lethal, it affects energy and redox metabolism at adulthood, probably through DNA methylation. The presented results demonstrate these animals have an increased capacity of storing energy, either through increased lipogenesis, or by an increase in redox energy accumulation (glutathione). No metabolic disease was observed. Although it would be expected that these animals would develop these diseases more easily after exposure to insults, such as unhealthy lifestyle habits, smoking, and others.