Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Netball is a fast and skilful team sport in which players need to be "quickthinking", because they are required to make fast and accurate decisions in ever-changing situations. Netball is a highly tactical game. Therefore the game has to be analysed on all levels of play. During every game or training session the coach has to look for those factors that influence performance and determine success. Methods of games analysis have been improved through the development of video and computer technology, in order to help coaches gather critical data. This study will utilise games analysis as a method for gaining insight into what kinds of "critical incidents" on a netball court lead a team to either score a goal, or to allow the opponent to score against them. Four expert coaches analysed game play from three top-level international netball matches in order to identify the reasons for success/failure during game play. A computer-based games analysis system was used to identify the reasons for losing ball possession during the same games analysed by the experts. The results of computer-based games analysis was compared to the analysis provided by elite coaches in order to determine the value of the technology in providing relevant information. These identified key performance indicators were then ranked according to frequency. Additional games statistics were generated, using games analysis. This knowledge will not only contribute to an understanding of how technology can support coaching, but it will also expand our understanding of the tactics of netball and thus contribute to coaches' efforts to teach players how to make "good decisions". An important by-product of this study was the identification of the key performance indicators that influence success/failure in netball. This knowledge should help coaches determine what kinds of tactical learning situations are important to include in practice sessions. It is the coach's responsibility to develop thinking players. On court - during a game - it is the players' responsibility to read the game and make instant decisions. Also during the game - during time outs and half time- it is the coach's responsibility to give the players feedback on their decision-making and to make suggestions for improvements. Both roles require effective analysis of the game. Keywords: netball; games analysis; technology / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Netbal is 'n vinnige vaardigheidspel. Spelers moet oor die vermoe beskik om in aanhoudende veranderde situasies en spel vinnige, akkurate besluite te neem. Dit is 'n uiters taktiese spel en daarom moet dit op alle vlakke geanaliseer word. Gedurende elke oefensessie en wedstryd moet die aftigter fokus op faktore wat die sukses en prestasie van 'n speier of span kan beinvloed. Met behulp van die verbeterde rekenaar- en videotegnologie is verskillende metodes van wedstrydanalises ontwikkel - met die doel om afrigters te fasiliteer om kritiese informasie te versamel. Die doel van hierdie studie is om wedstrydanalise as 'n metode te beskryf om kritiese situasies te identifiseer wat tot gevolg het dat 'n span 'n doel wen of afstaan. Vier topvlak afrigters het drie internasionale wedstryde geanaliseer om sodoende die redes vir sukses of rnislukte pogings in die wedstryd te identifiseer. In dieselfde drie wedstryde is 'n rekenaar wedstrydanalise stelsel gebruik om die redes vir balbesit of -verlies te identifiseer. Die resultate van die rekanaar-gebaseerde spelanalises en die vier afrigters is vergelyk om die waarde van die verskil in informasie te vergelyk en te bepaal. Die kern prestasiefaktore wat deur bogenoemde geidentifiseer is, is volgens rangorde geplaas op grond van die frekwensie waarop dit voorgekom het. Hierdie inligting sal as 'n bydrae dien tot die wyse waartoe tegnologie afrigting kan ondersteun. Dit brei ook die verstaanbaarheid van taktiek in netbal uit en bevorder besluitnerning meer spesifiek. 'n Belangrike resultaat van die studie is die identifikasie van die kern prestasiefaktore. Hierdie inligting kan afrigters in verskeie taktiese leer-situasies ondersteun. Die ideaal is dat elke afrigter sy verantwoordelikheid sal besef om onafhanklike, selfdenkende spelers te ontwikkel. Op die baan is dit gevolglik die speier se eie verantwoordelikheid om die wedstryd te lees en besluite te neem. Gedurende halftyd en na die wedstryd is dit die afrigter se verantwoordelikheid om aan spelers terugvoering te gee, asook aanbevelings te maak ten opsigte van besluitneming. Beide rolle, as afrigter of speier, vereis effektiewe wedstrydanalise. Sleutelwoorde: netbal; wedstrydanalise; tegnologie / jfl201407

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Functional fitness refers to the physical capacity to perform normal everyday activities safely and independently without undue fatigue. More specifically, functional fitness refers to having adequate strength, flexibility, mobility and endurance to execute essential tasks efficiently and effortlessly. Being functionally fit is important for all populations, but even more so for populations at risk for loosing functional capacity such as the elderly, disabled, and those with chronic medical conditions. Down syndrome individuals form part of the intellectually disabled population and show even more marked reductions in physical and functional capacities when compared to this already functionally limited population. Most DS individuals live sedentary lives, are obese, and age prematurely. For these reasons it is important to develop their functional capacities optimally. Although standardised tests are available for youngsters with intellectual disability, this is not the case for DS individuals. This study therefore endeavoured to describe the physical and functional fitness capacity of DS adults and to determine how much individual physical attributes contribute to functional capacity. 17 items, of which the validity and reliability have been determined, were included in the test battery. This included 2 balance tests, 2 flexibility tests, 2 coordination tests, 5 muscular strength and endurance tests, 2 functional tasks and an aerobic test. A total of 371 individuals from DS centres and institutions across seven provinces in South Africa volunteered to participate in the study. The study sample was categorised according to gender and four different age groups (18-25, 26-35, 36-45, >45 years) for further analysis. DS men were taller, heavier and had a greater arm span and sitting height than DS women. The majority of the participants were either overweight or obese. DS men performed significantly better on all but three tests compared to the women. The women performed better on the sit- and- reach flexibility test and the chair stand test, however, differences were not statistically significant. Physical test items correlated significantly and strongly to functional performance in 9 items for DS men and 5 items for DS women. Importantly, balance items correlated stronger with functional performance in DS women than in DS men. This is not a new finding and suggests that separate training programs should be developed for DS men and DS women. This is the first study of its kind in South Africa and confirms the findings of previous studies that DS adults have both low physical and functional capacities. They are particularly weak in terms of basic endurance and strength, which have been shown are trainable variables in DS individuals. The study also provides valuable criterion referenced values for an adult DS population. This information will assist health professionals in tailoring appropriate training programs to address functional limitations, as well as the negative health consequences associated with ageing. This special population thus need the assistance of sport scientists, as well as the community, to integrate them into special training and activity programs to improve their quality of life. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Funksionele fiksheid verwys na die fisieke kapasiteit om alledaagse aktiwiteite op ‘n veilige en onafhanklike wyse uit te voer sonder om oormatige vermoeienis te ervaar. Meer spesifiek beteken funksionele fiksheid dat ‘n person voldoende krag, lenigheid, beweeglikheid en uithouvermoë besit om essensiële take doeltreffend en moeiteloos te voltooi. Alle populasies behoort funksioneel fiks te wees, maar dit is self meer belangrik vir populasies wat die risiko het om hul funksionele kapasiteit te verloor, soos bejaardes, persone met gestremdhede en diegene met kroniese mediese toestande. Down sindroom individue is deel van die populasie met intellektueel gestremdhede en hulle het selfs meer fisieke en funksionele beperkinge as die intellektueel gestremdes. Die meeste persone met DS het ‘n onaktiewe leefstyl, is vetsugtig en ervaar premature veroudering. Vir hierdie redes is dit uiters belangrik om hulle funksionele kapasiteit optimaal te ontwikkel. Hoewel gestandaardiseerde toetse beskikbaar is vir jong persone met intellektueel gestremdhede, is dit nie die geval met DS individue nie. Hierdie studie was ‘n poging om die fisieke en funksionele fiksheidkapasiteit van DS volwassenes te beskryf en te bepaal tot watter mate fisieke eienskappe funksionele kapasiteit bepaal. 17 items, waarvan die geldigheid en herhaalbaarheid bepaal is, is ingelsuit in die toetsbattery. Dit het die volgende ingesluit: 2 balanstoetse, 2 lenigheidstoetse, 2 koordinasietoetse. 5 spierkrag en uithouvermoë toetse, 2 funksionale take en een aërobiese toets. ‘n Totaal van 371 individue van DS sentrums en instellings in sewe provinsies in Suid Afrika het vrywillig ingestem om aan die studie deel te neem. Die steekproef is volgens geslag en ouderdom in vier kategorieë verdeel (18-25, 26-35, 36-45, >45 jaar) vir verdere analise. DS mans was langer, swaarder en het ‘n langer armlengte en sithoogte gehad as DS vroue. Die meerderheid van die deelnemers was of oorgewig of vetsugtig. DS mans het beduidend beter as die vroue gevaar in al die toetse, behalwe drie. Die vroue het beter gevaar in die sit en strek lenigheidstoets en die stoel opstaan toets, maar die verskille was nie statisties betekenisvol nie. Nege fisieke toetsitems vir mans het sterk en betekenisvol gekorreleer met funksionele kapasiteit, terwyl 5 items vir vroue betekenisvolle korrelasies gewys het. Balans items het sterker met funksionele kapasiteit in vroue as in mans gekorreleer. Hierdie is nie ‘n nuwe bevinding nie en bevestig dat verskillende oefenprogramme vir DS mans en vroue ontwikkel moet word. Hierdie is die eerste studie van sy soort in Suid Afrika en bevestig die resultate van vorige studies dat DS volwassenes beide lae fisieke en funksionele kapasiteite het. Hulle is veral swak ten opsigte van basiese uithouvermoë en spierkrag, maar beide hierdie veranderlikes kan by DS persone ingeoefen word. Hierdie studie voorsien ook waardevolle kriterium verwysingswaardes vir ‘n volasse DS populasie. Hierdie inligting kan persone in die gesondheidsberoepe help om gepaste oefenprogramme saam te stel om die funksionele beperkings en negatiewe gesondheidsgevolge wat met veroudering geassosieer word, aan te spreek. Hierdie spesiale populasie benodig dus die hulp van sportwetenskaplikes, sowel as die gemeenskap, om hulle te integreer in spesiale oefen- en aktiwiteitsprogramme om sodoende hulle kwaliteit van lewe te verbeter.

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Knee injuries are common among the physically active population and are often severe enough that it requires surgery. Rehabilitation specialists are on the constant look-out for the most efficient and cost-effective treatment alternatives to provide athletes with an early return to sport. The inclusion of backward locomotion in knee rehabilitation programs has been proposed since it is considered a safe closed kinetic chain exercise which has been found to increase quadriceps strength and power as well as cardiorespiratory fitness. The primary aim of the study was to establish the efficacy of backward locomotion training during a knee rehabilitation program. Thirty nine men and women (aged 18 to 59 years) with knee pathologies volunteered for the study and were randomly assigned to the experimental group (EXP, n = 20) and control group (CON, n = 19). All participants underwent a 24 session knee rehabilitation program which included 20 – 30 minutes of cardiorespiratory training, either in backward mode (EXP), or forward mode (CON). Aerobic fitness, quadriceps and hamstrings strength and power, single leg balance, lower limb circumferences, and lower limb flexibility were measured before and after the rehabilitation program. Backward locomotion training resulted in a borderline statistical significant improvement in ventilatory threshold (VT) (p = 0.07) and a statistical significant improvement in peak power output (PPO) (p < 0.05). The VT and PPO of the backward locomotion group increased by 9 and 14%, respectively, compared to 0 and 4% in the forward locomotion group. Both groups showed statistically significant improvements in quadriceps and hamstrings strength, except the quadriceps of the uninvolved leg of the forward locomotion group. Similarly, both groups showed a statistically significant improvement in quadriceps and hamstrings average power, except the quadriceps of the uninvolved leg of the forward locomotion group. Single leg balance of the involved and uninvolved legs improved statistically significantly in both groups (p < 0.05). The differences in change between the two interventions were not statistically significantly different (p > 0.05) and the practical differences were small (ES ± 0.2). No statistically significant differences in the change in leg circumferences were observed between the two groups. Only the change in flexibility of the involved soleus was significantly different between the EXP and CON groups. The results show that backward locomotion training result in greater improvements in aerobic fitness and equal or greater improvements in quadriceps and hamstrings muscle strength and power, compared to forward locomotion training. Backward locomotion as well as forward locomotion contributes to the recovery of knee injuries, however, the practical significance of backward locomotion is greater than for forward locomotion. The conclusion of this is that backward locomotion is a better alternative rehabilitation program for athletes as this will affect a quicker return to their sport. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kniebeserings kom algemeen voor in die fisiek aktiewe bevolking en is dikwels so ernstig dat dit chirurgie vereis. Rehabilitasie-spesialiste is voortdurend op soek na die mees doeltreffende en koste-effektiewe alternatief vir behandeling om die atlete vinnig te laat terugkeer na hul sport. Die insluiting van agteruitbeweging in knie-rehabilitasieprogramme is al in die verlede voorgestel, aangesien dit beskou word as 'n veilige geslote-kinetieseketting oefening wat al geskik bevind is om quadriceps sterkte en krag, asook kardiorespiratoriese fiksheid te verbeter. Die hoofdoel van die studie was om die effektiwiteit van agteruitbewegingoefening in 'n knierehabilitasieprogram te bepaal. Nege-en-dertig mans en vroue (tussen die ouderdom van 18 en 59 jaar) met kniepatologieë het vrywillig ingestem om aan die studie deel te neem en is lukraak verdeel in die eksperimentele groep (EXP, n = 20) en kontrole groep (CON, n = 19). Alle deelnemers het 24 sessies voltooi waarvan 20 – 30 minute kardiorespiratoriese oefeninge was. Dit het óf in die agteruitrigting (EXP), óf vorentoe-rigting (CON) plaasgevind. Aërobiese fiksheid, quadriceps en hamstrings sterkte en krag, eenbeenbalans, omtrekke van die onderste ledemaat, en soepelheid van die onderste ledemaat is gemeet, voor en na die rehabilitasieprogram. Agteruitbeweging-oefening het 'n geringe verbetering in ventilatoriese draaipunt (VT) (p = 0.07) opgelewer wat grens aan 'n statisties betekenisvolle verbetering, asook 'n statisties betekenisvolle verbetering in piek kraguitset (PPO) (p <0.05). Die VT en PPO van die agteruitbeweging groep het onderskeidelik verbeter met 9 en 14%, in vergelyking met 0 en 4% in die vorentoe-beweging groep. Beide groepe het statisties betekenisvolle verbeteringe in quadriceps en hamstrings sterkte getoon, behalwe die quadriceps van die onbeseerde been van die vorentoe-beweging groep. Soortgelyk daaraan het beide groepe statisties betekenisvolle verbeteringe in quadriceps en hamstrings gemiddelde krag getoon, behalwe die quadriceps van die onbeseerde been van die vorentoe-beweging groep. Eenbeenbalans van die beseerde en onbeseerde bene het statisties betekenisvol verbeter in beide groepe (p < 0.05). Die verskil in verandering tussen die twee intervensies was nie statisties betekenisvol verskillend nie en die praktiese verskil was klein (ES ± 0.2). Geen statisties betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die twee groepe in die verandering in beenomtrekke nie. Slegs die soepelheid van die beseerde soleus van die EXP groep het statisties betekenisvol verbeter tussen die twee groepe. Die resultate toon dat agteruitbeweging-oefening tot groter verbetering gelei het in aërobiese fiksheid en gelyke of groter verbetering in quadriceps en hamstrings sterkte en krag, in vergelyking met vorentoe-beweging oefening. Agteruitbeweging-oefening sowel as vorentoe-beweging oefening dra by tot die herstel van kniebeserings, maar die praktiese beduidendheid van agteruitbeweging-oefening is groter as vorentoe-beweging oefening. Die gevolgtrekking van die studie is dat agteruitbeweging 'n beter alternatiewe rehabilitasieprogram vir atlete is, met 'n gevolglike vinniger terugkeer na hul sport.

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to research and document the origins and activities of the University of Stellenbosch Women's hockey club. The core of this study is therefore about the development of the Women's hockey club from 1903 to 1992. Although a lot has been written about sport at the University, most of the information was not preserved and therefore there are gaps in their sport history. This study focuses on sport history and therefore the historic-scientific method was implemented using only primary resources such as the minutes of meetings, reports and interviews with players. The introduction focuses on the development of world hockey and the different forms of the sport that was been played in different countries. Followed by an overview of the development of hockey sticks and ball as well as the evolution of hockey in the nineteenth and twentieth century. The development of women’s hockey in England and the USA as well as the International Federation for Women’s Hockey Association (IFWHA) was discussed. The second chapter is about the history of women’s hockey in South Africa especially the origins of women’s clubs and associations. After that the interprovincial tournament was explained. The All South African and Rhodesia Women’s Hockey Association, their constitution and the South African Hockey Union were discussed. Attention was also given to the Springbok-emblem and tours to and from South Africa. The third chapter explains the methodology of the study as well as the purpose, formulation of the problem, method of research and evaluation of the resources. The fourth chapter discusses the club’s beginning from 1903 to 1958, as well as their hockey fields. The reason why those particular dates was used was because there was no minutes or reports for those years. Therefore there had to be relied on secondary resources. The history of the women’s hostels is explained in chapter five as well as the results of the hostel hockey. The first-years-tournament, hostel league and the Prestige-tournament also formed part of hostel hockey. In chapter six the inter-university tournaments from 1940 is discussed. After each tournament a SAU-team (Protea-team) was chosen to tour overseas or in South Africa. The origins of indoor hockey are described in chapter seven followed by the indoor hockey league at Stellenbosch. In chapter eight the club and league activities are discussed from 1959 to 1992. Individual activities and school camps are highlighted that were presented by the Women's club. Attention was also given to tours and tournaments which the teams undertook and a few coaches that stood out from the rest. Finally the social aspect of the club was examined. The top achievers of the Women’s club, who were all SA-players, are discussed in chapter nine. The study is concluded with a summary of all the important facts and findings. Appendix A to G covers all the SAU-players, players who received sport-colors, the national tournament results, coaches, club awards and provincial players. In 1992 the men’s and women’s hockey clubs merged and became known as the US-hockey club. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om die oorsprong en gebeure van die Universiteit van Stellenbosch se Dameshokkieklub na te vors en te dokumenteer. Die kern van die studie handel dus oor die ontwikkeling van die Dameshokkieklub vanaf 1903 tot 1992. Alhoewel daar wel oor die universiteit se sport geskryf is, is die meeste van die klubs se inligting nie bewaar nie en daarom bestaan daar nog groot leemtes in die sportgeskiedenis. Omdat die onderhawige onderwerp sportgeskiedkundig van aard is, is die histories-wetenskaplike metode gevolg. Primêre bronne was hoofsaaklik notules, bestuurs- en voorsittersverslae asook onderhoude met oud-spelers. Die inleiding verskaf ’n oorsig van die ontwikkeling van hokkie regoor die wêreld en die verskillende vorms wat deur verskillende lande gespeel is. Daarna is daar aan die ontwikkeling van die hokkiestok en -bal aandag gegee asook hokkie gedurende die negentiende en twintigste eeu. Die ontwikkeling van vrouehokkie in Engeland en die VSA, asook die Internasionale Federasie vir Vrouehokkieverenigings (IFWHA) word bespreek. Die tweede hoofstuk handel oor die geskiedenis van vrouehokkie in Suid-Afrika. Daar word aandag aan die oorsprong van vroueklubs en –verenigings geskenk, sowel as aan interprovinsiale toernooie wat gespeel is. Die “All South African and Rhodesia Women’s Hockey Association” en hulle grondwet asook die Suid-Afrikaanse Hokkie-unie word aangeraak. Daarna word die ontstaan van die Springbokembleem vir hokkie bespreek asook toere wat na en van Suid-Afrika plaasgevind het. Die derde hoofstuk handel oor die metodiek van die studie. Dit dek die doel, probleemstelling, navorsingsmetode en die evaluering van die bronne. Die vierde hoofstuk handel oor die vroeë geskiedenis van die Dameshokkieklub vanaf 1903 tot 1958, asook die ontstaan van die hokkievelde. Die rede vir hierdie afbakening, is omdat die notules en verslae vir daardie jare ontbreek en daar dus op sekondêre bronne staatgemaak moes word. Die geskiedenis van die dameskoshuise word in hoofstuk vyf bespreek en daarna word die uitslae opgesom. Die eerstejaarstoernooi, koshuisliga en Prestige-toernooi vorm almal deel van koshuishokkie. In hoofstuk ses word inter-universitêre toernooie vanaf 1940 bespreek. Na afloop van elke toernooi is daar ’n SAU-span (Proteaspan) gekies wat verskeie toere onderneem het. Die ontstaan van binnenshuise hokkie op nasionale sowel as universiteitsvlak word in hoofstuk sewe behandel. In hoofstuk agt word die klub- en ligabedrywighede vanaf 1959 tot 1992 bespreek. Prestasies van individue word uitgelig asook skolekampe wat aangebied is. Aandag word geskenk aan toere en toernooie wat die spanne onderneem het, ’n paar afrigters wat ’n groot aanwins vir die klub was asook die sosiale aspekte rondom die klub. Die toppresteerders van die Dameshokkieklub, wat almal Springbokspelers was, word in hoofstuk nege behandel. Die studie word afgesluit met ’n samevatting van al die belangrike feite en bevindinge. Bylaes A tot G sluit al die SAU-ererolverteenwoordigers, spelers wat erekleure ontvang het, die nasionale toernooi-uitslae, afrigters, klubtoekennings en ’n lys van provinsiale spelers vir veldhokkie en binnenshuise hokkie in. Nadat die Dameshokkieklub vir 89 jaar afsonderlik gefunksioneer het, het die mans- en damesklub in 1992 saamgesmelt om die US-hokkieklub te vorm en is dit steeds hoe hulle vandag bekendstaan.

Thesis (M Sport Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Compression socks (CS) are used as an ergogenic aid during and after exercise by many athletes of elite and recreational status. The exact mechanism whereby CS affect performance and postexercise recovery is not yet elucidated. Some research ascribes the beneficial effects to improved lactate removal rates with CS. One hypothesis is that CS improve venous return and thereby remove the lactate from the tissue to other tissues such as the liver, and the second hypothesis is that the CS cause retention of the lactate within the muscle and therefore improve the oxidation of the lactate within the muscle (Berry & McMurray, 1987). The current study endeavoured to test the hypothesis set by Berry and McMurray (1987) by measuring the effect of CS as well as flight socks (FS) on muscle oxygenation during exercise and recovery in endurance trained runners and triathletes. Eleven male endurance trained runners and triathletes (age = 34.8 ± 3.8 years, VO2max = 52.4 ± 7.1 mL.kg-1.min-1) participated in the study. They completed an incremental exercise test to exhaustion to determine their maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max) and peak treadmill velocity (PTV). Then they completed two 10 km treadmill running tests at 80 % of their PTV. During these two trials participants wore either CS or FS; the order of treatment was randomly selected. A subset of the study sample (n = 5) also completed a control test wearing only their ankle length sport socks (NS). After these trials, participants completed a 60 minute passive recovery period in the seated position while muscle oxygenation was measured. Compression under the socks was measured at several anatomically determined measurement points prior to the commencement of the exercise test, along with the determination of blood haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]). During the exercise trials, blood lactate concentration ([BLa]), skin temperature (ST),oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2), heart rate (HR), and muscle oxygenation variables (oxy-haemoglobin (O2Hb), deoxy-haemoglobin (HHb), tissue oxygenation index (TOI) and total haemoglobin index (nTHI)) was measured . During the 60minute passive recovery period, [BLa], ST, O2Hb, HHb, TOI, and nTHI measurements were continued. The results showed that there were differences in the pressure exerted between the two pressure condition (CS and FS) at the posterior ankle, and under the elastic of the sock as well as on the anterior calf at the level of greatest calf circumference. Differences in ST between the CS and NS and the FS and NS conditions were found between the first four 2 km intervals of the exercise protocol, but not during recovery. No differences were found in [BLa] between the three different compression conditions during either the exercise (p = 0.19) or recovery period (p = 0.63), as well as no differences in the cardiorespiratory variables during exercise between the three different compression conditions (VO2, p = 0.06; VCO2, p = 0.12; HR, p = 0.36). With regard to the muscle oxygenation variables, no differences were found between the three compression conditions during exercise, however there was a trend for lower oxygen utilization (HHb) during exercise in the NS condition (p = 0.57, medium to large practical significance). There were also no differences in these variables (O2Hb, p = 0.65; HHb, p = 0.57; TOI, p = 0.39; nTHI, p = 0.22) during recovery, although oxygen utilization (HHb) showed a faster recovery rate with increasing external pressure. From the results obtained, it seems that external compression caused a decrease in the blood flow velocity within the muscle, thereby increasing oxygen diffusion rate. During exercise this did not facilitate differences in [BLa], however, after the first 10 minutes of the recovery period, large practical differences were found between the NS and both sock conditions, suggesting that the increase in oxygen diffusion improved lactate clearance. This could support the hypothesis set by Berry and McMurray (1987). / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kompressie sokkies (CS) word gereeld deur beide rekreasie- en elite atlete gebruik as ‘n ergogeniese hulpmiddlel tydens oefening en herstel. Die presiese meganisme waardeur CS prestasie en post-oefening herstel beïnvloed is nog nie volledig verklaar nie. Sommige navorsing skryf die voordelige effekte toe aan die vinniger herstel van laktaat in die sirkulasie. Daar is tans twee hipoteses vir die meganisme waardeur CS laktaat verwydering verbeter. Die eerste hipotese is dat CS die veneuse terugvoer verbeter en daardeur die laktaat van die weefsel verwyder en na ander weefsels soos die lewer vervoer vir verwydering. Die tweede hipotese is dat CS veroorsaak dat die laktaat in die spierweefsel teruggehou word wat dan tot gevolg het dat die laktaat in die spier self deur middel van oksidasie verwyder word (Berry & McMurray, 1987). Hierdie studie poog om Berry en McMurray (1987) se hipotese te toets deur die effek wat CS sowel as vlugsokkies (FS) op spieroksigenasie het gedurende oefening en herstel in geoefende uithouvermoë hardlopers en driekamp atlete vas te stel. Elf ingeoefende langafstand hardlopers en driekampatlete (mans) (ouderdom = 34.8 ± 3.8 jaar; VO2maks = 52.4 ± 7.1 mL.kg-1.min-1) het aan hierdie studie deel geneem. Die deelnemers het ‘n inkrementele toets tot die punt van uitputting voltooi om hul maksimale aërobiese kapasiteit (VO2maks) en piek trapmeul snelheid (PTV) vas te stel. Die elf deelnemers het ook twee 10 km hardlooptoetse teen 80 % van hul PTV voltooi. Gedurende hierdie twee toetse het die deelnemers óf CS óf FS gedra; die volgorde van die intervensie was lukraak aan hulle toegeken. ‘n Subgroep van die steekproef (n = 5) het ook ‘n kontrole toets voltooi waartydens hulle hul eie enkelhoogte sport sokkies (NS) gedra het. Aan die einde van die hardloop protokol het die deelnemers ‘n 60 minuut passiewe herstel periode in die sittende posisie voltooi terwyl spieroksigenasie gemeet is. Kompressie onder die sokkies is voor die aanvang van die hardloop protokol by verskeie anatomies gedefinieerde punte gemeet. Verder was die bloed hemoglobien konsentrasie ([Hb]) ook gemeet voor die hardloop protokol. Tydens die oefeningtoets is bloedlaktaat konsentrasie ([Hb]), veltemperatuur (ST), suurstof verbruik (VO2), koolstofdioksied produksie (VCO2), harttempo (HR), sowel as spieroksigenasie veranderlikes (oksi-hemoglobien (O2Hb), deoksi-hemoglobien (HHb), weefsel oksigenasie indeks (TOI), en totale hemoglobien indeks (nTHI)) gemeet. Gedurende die 60 minuut passiewe hersteltydperk is [BLa], ST, O2Hb, HHb, TOI en nTHI metings geneem. Die resultate toon dat daar ‘n verskil is in die druk wat uitgeoefen word in die onderskeie druktoestande (CS en FS) op die been by die posterior enkel en onder die rek van die sokkie, sowel as op die anterior kuit waar die kuit die grootste omtrek het. Verdere verskille tussen die CS en NS en die FS en NS toestande is in ST gevind in the eerste vier 2 km intervalle van die oefeningtoets, alhoewel geen verskille tydens die herstelperiode gevind is nie. Tydens beide die oefening (p = 0.19) en herstel (p = 0.63) protokol is geen verskille tussen die drie kompressie toestande met betrekking tot [BLa] gevind nie. En so ook is daar geen verskille tussen die onderskeie kompressie toestande in kardiorespiratoriese veranderlikes (VO2, p = 0.06; VCO2, p = 0.12; HR, p = 0.36) tydens oefening gevind nie. Met betrekking tot spieroksigenasie veranderlikes was daar geen verskil gevind tussen die drie kompressietoestande gedurende oefening nie, alhoewel daar ‘n tendens was vir die NS toestand om tydens oefening minder suurstofverbruik (HHb) (p = 0.57, medium tot groot praktiese effek) te lewer. So ook gedurende herstel is daar geen verskil in hierdie veranderlikes (O2Hb, p = 0.65; HHb, p = 0.57; TOI, p = 0.39; nTHI, p = 0.22) gevind nie, alhoewel die suurstofverbruik (HHb) vinniger na die basislyn herstel het met ‘n toename in druk. Die resultate toon dat eksterne kompressie ‘n afname in die bloedvloei tempo in die spier veroorsaak wat dan ‘n verlengde suurstof diffusie tyd veroorsaak. Hierdie verlengde suurstof diffusie tyd het geen effek op [BLa] tydens oefening gehad nie, alhoewel daar na die eerste 10 minute van die herstelperiode ‘n groot praktiese verskil tussen die NS en sokkie toestande gevind was in [BLa]. Hierdie verskil kan daarop dui dat die toename in suurstof diffusie verbeterde laktaat verwydering tot gevolg het, wat dan die hipotese van Berry en McMurray (1987) ondersteun.

Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to compile a sport psychological skills profile of track and field athletes and to determine whether a purposefully-developed psychological-skills training (PST) programme would affect this profile and athletic performance. The study was conducted in two phases. During the first phase 143 student athletes completed sport psychological skills questionnaires before competing in the 2011 University Sport South Africa (USSA) Athletics Championship. The athletes’ perceived importance of psychological skills, psychologically preparedness, and need for psychological skills training were investigated. The athletes’ best performances at the championship were recorded and their IAAF performance points calculated. The majority of the athletes perceived PST as important. However, in contrast, a large percentage was uncertain about their need for PST programmes and, alarmingly, most of the athletes under-utilized the services of sport psychologists. This could possibly indicate a resistance to PST. Overall, the results revealed poor sport psychological skill levels. Only the achievement motivation and goal directedness dimensions showed satisfactory results. Effect sizes were used to compare the sport psychological skill levels of more and less successful athletes. This revealed significant differences between the respective groups. The within-group comparisons showed that the more successful sprinters outscored the less successful sprinters in the subscales of stress control and achievement motivation. Achievement motivation was the only aspect that differed significantly between the more and less successful middle and long-distance athletes. Among the jumpers, confidence and stress control distinguished between the top and bottom athletes. The more successful throwers recorded higher imagery and achievement motivation scores than the less successful throwers. The results from the first phase were used to develop a PST programme aimed at improving the sport psychological skill levels and performance of student track and field athletes. In Phase Two, athletes from Stellenbosch University were divided into an experimental (n = 24) and control group (n = 18). Both groups underwent pre and post-testing of the same psychological skills questionnaires used in the first phase, whilst their athletic performances were recorded on both occasions. The experimental group participated in a PST programme consisting of seven sessions which covered the following topics: achievement motivation, goal-directedness, managing somatic anxiety, managing cognitive anxiety, self-confidence, concentration, and imagery. In addition to these sessions daily activities and assignments were completed in a workbook. The effectiveness of the PST programme in improving the athletes’ sport psychological skills levels is evident from the improvements observed in nine of the eleven subscales among the experimental group opposed to four skills among the control group. Inexplicably, the control group’s athletic performance improved significantly more than that of the experimental group. Further research into the role and effectiveness of PST in track and field is recommended. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om ’n sportsielkundige vaardigheidsprofiel vir baan- en veldatlete saam te stel en om te bepaal tot watter mate ’n sportsielkundige vaardigheidsprogram (SVP) hierdie profiel en atletiekprestasie sal beïnvloed. Die navorsing het uit twee fases bestaan. Gedurende fase een het 143 studente-atlete verskeie sportsielkundige vraelyste voltooi voor deelname aan die 2011 Suid-Afrikaanse Studente-Atletiekkampioenskappe (USSA). Die atlete se persepsie oor die belangrikheid van sielkundige vaardighede, sielkundige voorbereiding en behoefte aan onderrig in sielkundige vaardighede is ondersoek. Die atlete se beste vertonings tydens die kampioenskappe is gemonitor en hul IAAF- prestasiepunte bereken. Die meerderheid van hierdie atlete het aangedui dat sportsielkundige vaardigheidsontwikkeling belangrik is, maar in teensteling hiermee het ’n groot persentasie aangedui dat hulle onseker is oor hul behoefte aan sportsielkundige vaardigheidsontwikkeling. Die bevinding dat die meerderheid van die atlete nie genoegsaam van sportsielkundige dienste gebruik maak nie, is kommerwekkend. Hierdie verskynsel kan op ’n weerstand teen sportsielkundige vaardigheids-ontwikkeling dui. In geheel het die sportsielkundige profiel van hierdie baan- en veldatlete swak vertoon, behalwe vir prestasiemotivering en doelgerigtheid wat bevredigende resultate opgelewer het. Effekgroottes is gebruik om die sportsielkundige vaardighede van minder en meer suksesvolle atlete met mekaar vergelyk. Dit het beduidende verskille tussen die groepe opgelewer. Die binnegroepvergelykings het getoon dat meer suksesvolle naellopers hoër tellings as minder suksesvolle naellopers in die volgende subskale behaal het: stresbeheer en prestasiemotivering. Prestasiemotivering was ook die enigste subskaal wat tussen meer en minder suksesvolle middel- en langafstandatlete kon onderskei. Selfvertroue en stresbeheer was twee aspekte wat tussen meer en minder suksesvolle springers gediskrimineer het. Prestasiemotivering en beelding was die enigste sportsielkundige dimensies wat tussen meer en minder suksesvolle gooiers kon onderskei. Die meer suksesvolle gooiers het beter vlakke met betrekking tot hierdie twee subskale getoon. Die resultate van die eerste fase is gebruik om ’n sportsielkundige intervensieprogram te ontwikkel waardeur sielkundige vaardighede en prestasie van tersiêre baan- en veldatlete verbeter kan word. In die tweede fase is atlete van die Stellenbosch Universiteit in ’n eksperimentele- (n = 24) en kontrolegroep (n = 18) verdeel. Beide groepe het dieselfde sportsielkundige vraelyste as in die eerste fase, voor en na afloop van die intervensieprogram, waaraan die eksperimentele groep meegedoen het, voltooi. Alle deelnemers se atletiekprestasies is voor en na afloop van die intervensieprogram genoteer. Die eksperimentele groep het aan die ontwikkelde sportsielkundige vaardigheidsprogram deelgeneem wat uit die volgende sewe sessies bestaan het: prestasiemotivering, doelgerigtheid, somatiese angsbeheer, kognitiewe angsbeheer, selfvertroue, konsentrasie en beelding. Hierdie sessies is deur daaglikse aktiwiteite aangevul en opdragte wat in ’n werkboek voltooi moes word. Die effektiwiteit van die program in die ontwikkeling van sielkundige vaardighede blyk duidelik uit die bevinding dat die eksperimentele groep betekenisvolle verbeteringe getoon het in nege uit elf sportsielkundige vaardighede teenoor die vier vaardighede wat by die kontrolegroep verbeter het. ’n Onverklaarbare bevinding was egter dat die kontrolegroep se atletiekprestasies betekenisvol meer verbeter het as die eksperimentele groep s’n. Verdere navorsing oor die rol en effektiwiteit van sportsielkundige vaardigheidsontwikkeling in atletiek word aanbeveel.

Thesis (MScSportSc)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The premise of this study focused on the holistic approach to the human body, mainly the connection between the brain and the body. According to Sibley and Etnier (2003:243) both the brain and the body are involved in all forms of learning and should not be considered as separate entities. Therefore, interdependent entities, in other words, what happens to one will affect the other. It is important to realize that learners attend school as holistic beings and that both the body and the brain require sufficient stimulation throughout the day. The purpose of this study focused on the effect of intervention programmes ([1] an integrated academic skills and physical development programme and [2] a moderately intensive physical activity programme) on Grade 2 learners' academic abilities, particularly with regard to literacy and numeracy skills. The study took place at two Afrikaans primary schools (a Quintile 5 school [School A] and a Quintile 1 school [School B]) in the Stellenbosch area. Six Grade 2 classes these schools were used for the purpose of this study. These six groups served as the sample. In this study a quasi-experimental design was used where participants were selected through a convenience sample. The participants that were divided into already existing class groups were made available by the schools. It was thus not possible to select learners randomly. Two Grade 2 groups (the experimental groups) from each school [A1 (n = 25), A2 (n = 26), B1 (n = 23) and B2 (n = 23)], took part in the two intervention programmes, whereas one Grade 2 group from each school (the control group) [A3 (n = 25), and B3 (n = 27)], did not participate in the intervention programmes. The Grade 2 groups consisted of both boys and girls. In the experimental group 48 boys and 49 girls took part in two intervention programmes (N = 97). The control group consisted of 22 boys and 30 girls participants (N = 52). Data was collected by means of a questionnaire and a pre- and post-test. The experimental and control groups completed the questionnaire and pre-test before the start of the intervention and the post-test after the intervention. The measuring instruments that were used during the pre- and post-tests were the VASSI Mathematical skills test and the ESSI Reading and Spelling Test. The two research schools used for the purpose of this study are located in diverse communities. School A is embedded in a more affluent community and School B in a less affluent community. School A is largely regarded as a functional and School B as a dysfunctional school. This means that in School A good school management, discipline and order, good knowledge of the curriculum content, low teacher / pupil absenteeism, good opportunities and resources, low repetition rates and little or no early school leaving by learners takes place. School B complies with the opposite characteristics and find it difficult to uphold the above-mentioned standards. Before the start of the study it became clear that the participants of the respective schools’ differed in literacy and numeracy abilities, as well as in participation in physical activities. Test results using the VASSI Mathematical skill test and the ESSI Reading and Spelling Test indicated that School A and B’s participants’ abilities differed in relation to literacy and numeracy skills. School A did better than School B in both literacy and numeracy during the pre-test. Through the information gathered using the questionnaire, it can be concluded that the two schools offer different opportunities to their learners with respect to movement experiences. School A's learners take part in sport and physical education (PE) throughout the year whereas School B did not offer these opportunities to learners. After the intervention programmes and through the use of the post-tests the results indicated that School A and B both showed progress in literacy and numeracy, although it was not statistically significant (p <0.01). Compared to the pre-test results and information gathered through the questionnaire the post-test results indicated that School B, with the least amount of movement opportunities, showed the greatest progress. Specifically the experimental group that took part in the moderately intensive physical activity programme indicated good progress in spelling. The afore-mentioned was not statistically significant and is only regarded as a tendency that warrants further research. Based on the results obtained by the current study general recommendations were made for education practice. It is essential that the importance of physical activity must be recognised. Physical activities can have an effect on the holistic development of the child. Hacker (2008:1) supports the afore-mentioned and believes that physical activities facilitate the development of the building blocks upon which learning processes rests. Thus, policy makers, education departments, teachers, parents and students need to understand the role of physical activity in the learning process. It is also of importance that teachers receive the necessary training in PE. It could be beneficial if refreshment courses or workshops with information regarding gross motor development are offered annually (or more) to PE teachers. Another recommendation eludes to the amount of time spent in schools on PE. The intense focus as on other scholastic subjects should be applied with the same intensity to PE. Additionally, in the South African education system PE should enjoy greater prominence. Thus, it is important that PE should have a daily slot in the school timetable. Recommendations for further research that could have played a role in the results of the present study refers to the sample size. The sample of the present study does not necessarily represent the rest of the Grade 2 groups in South Africa. Therefore, it is proposed that similar studies in future make use of larger samples sizes. It is important to choose the appropriate period in which the study should take place. It could be beneficial to perform a similar study later in the year, especially with regard to the transition from Grade 1 to Grade 2. This will enable the participants to have the necessary reading skills to complete the pre-and post-tests. Specific arrangements regarding space should be cleared up with schools and teachers. A schedule should be drawn up for the duration of the study. It is also recommended that the study be carried out over a longer period. The assumption is that if the intervention takes place over a longer period of time the effect of physical activity on several domains (cognitive, emotional, social and physical) may have been greater. With all the information put forward by the study, it is strongly recommended that the role of PE in schools be reconsidered. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die uitgangspunt van hierdie studie het op die holistiese benadering tot die menslike liggaam gefokus, hoofsaaklik die verbintenis tussen die brein en die liggaam. Volgens Sibley en Etnier (2003:243) betrek enige vorm van leer beide die brein en die liggaam en word beide nie as aparte entiteite beskou nie. Dus, interafhanklike entiteite, met ander woorde wat met die een gebeur sal die ander affekteer. Dit is van belang om te besef dat ‘n leerder skool as ‘n totaliteitswese bywoon en dat beide die liggaam en die brein genoegsame stimulering gedurende die dag moet ontvang. Die doel van hierdie studie het op die invloed wat intervensieprogramme ([1] ‘n geïntegreerde akademiese vaardigheid en fisieke ontwikkelingsprogram en [2] ‘n matig-intensiewe fisieke aktiwiteitsprogram) op Graad 2-leerders se akademiese vermoëns, spesifiek in terme van geletterdheid en syfervaardighede, gefokus. Die studie het by twee Afrikaanse laerskole (‘n Kwintiel 5 [Skool A] en ‘n Kwintiel 2 skool [Skool B]) in die Stellenbosch omgewing plaasgevind. Ses Graad 2-klasse in hierdie skole is vir die doel van hierdie studie gebruik. Hierdie ses groepe het as die steekproef gedien. In hierdie studie is daar van ‘n kwasi-eksperimentele ontwerp gebruik gemaak waar deelnemers deur middel van ‘n gerieflikheidsteekproef geselekteer is. Die deelnemers wat in reeds bestaande klasgroepe verdeel was, is deur die skole beskikbaar gestel. Dit was dus nie moontlik om leerders ewekansig te selekteer nie. Twee Graad 2-groepe (die eksperimentelegroepe) uit elke skool [A1 (n=25), A2 (n=26), B1(n=23) en B2 (n=23)] het aan die twee intervensieprogramme deelgeneem, terwyl een Graad 2-groep uit elke skool (die kontrolegroepe) [A3 (n=25) en B3 (n=27)] nie aan die intervensieprogramme deelgeneem het nie. Die Graad 2-groepe het uit seuns sowel as meisies bestaan. In die eksperimentelegroepe het 48 seuns en 49 meisies aan die twee intervensieprogramme deelgeneem (N=97). Die kontrolegroepe het uit 22 seuns en 30 meisies bestaan (N=52). Data is deur middel van ‘n vraelys en ‘n voor- en na-toets ingesamel. Die eksperimentele- en kontrolegroepe het voor die aanvang van die intervensieprogramme ‘n vraelys en voor-toets voltooi en na afloop van die intervensieprogramme ’n na-toets. Die meetinstrumente wat gedurende die voor- en na-toets gebruik is, was die VASSI-Wiskundige vaardigheidstoets en die ESSI-Lees- en Speltoets. Die twee navorsingskole wat vir die studie gebruik is, is in uiteenlopende gemeenskappe geleë. Skool A is in ‘n meer welvarende gemeenskap geleë en Skool B in ‘n minder welvarende gemeenskap. Skool A kan hoofsaaklik as ‘n funksionele skool bestempel word en Skool B as ‘n disfunksionele skool. Dit beteken dat Skool A vir goeie skoolbestuur, dissipline en orde, goeie kennis van die kurrikuluminhoud, lae onderwyser/leerder-afwesigheid, goeie geleenthede en hulpbronne, lae herhalingsyfers en min of geen vroeë skoolverlating deur leerders bekend is. Skool B voldoen aan die teenoorgestelde eienskappe en sukkel om aan laasgenoemde standaarde te voldoen. Voor die aanvang van die studie het dit duidelik geblyk dat die deelnemers in die onderskeie skole se vermoëns in geletterdheid en syfervaardigheid, asook deelname aan fisieke aktiwiteite, verskil het. Voor-toets resultate wat met behulp van die VASSI-Wiskundige vaardigheidstoets en ESSI-Leesen Speltoets bekom is, het daarop gedui dat Skool A en B se deelnemers se vermoë met betrekking tot geletterdheid en syfervaardighede verskil. Skool A het beter as Skool B in beide geletterdheid en syfervaardigheid gedurende die voor-toets gevaar. Vanuit die inligting wat met behulp van die vraelyste ingesamel is, kan daar afgelei word dat die twee skole verskillende geleenthede ten opsigte van bewegingservarings aan hulle leerders bied. Skool A se leerders neem regdeur die jaar aan sport en Liggaamlike Opvoeding (LO) deel, terwyl Skool B nie hierdie geleenthede aan die leerders bied nie. Na afloop van die intervensieprogramme en met behulp van die na-toets het resultate getoon dat vordering in geletterdheid en syfervaardigheid by Skool A en B voorgekom het, alhoewel nie statisties beduidend (p<0.01) nie. In vergelyking met die voor-toets resultate en die inligting wat uit die vraelys bekom is, het die na-toets resultate getoon dat Skool B wat oor die minste bewegingsgeleenthede beskik, die grootste vordering getoon het. Spesifiek die eksperimentelegroep wat aan die matig-intensiewe fisieke aktiwiteitsprogram deelgeneem het, het goeie vordering in spelvermoëns getoon. Laasgenoemde is nie statisties beduidend nie en word slegs as ‘n tendens beskou wat verdere navorsing regverdig. Op grond van die resultate is algemene aanbevelings vir die onderwyspraktyk vanuit die studie gemaak. Dit is van belang dat die belangrikheid van fisieke aktiwiteite herken word. Fisieke aktiwiteite kan ‘n effek op die holistiese ontwikkeling van die kind hê. Hacker (2008:1) ondersteun laasgenoemde en is van mening dat fisieke aktiwiteit die ontwikkeling van die boustene waarop die leerproses gebou word fasiliteer. Dus, moet beleidmakers, onderwysdepartemente, onderwysers, ouers en leerders die rol van fisieke aktiwiteite in die leerproses verstaan. Dit is ook van belang dat onderwysers die nodige opleiding in LO ontvang. Dit kan voordelig wees as opknappings kursusse of werkswinkels met inligting aangaande grootmotoriese ontwikkeling jaarliks (of meer) aan LO onderwysers aangebied kan word. Nog ‘n aanbeveling dui op die tyd wat aan LO by skole gespandeer moet word. Die intense fokus op ander skolastiese vakke moet met dieselfde erns op LO toegepas word en in die Suid-Afrikaanse onderwyssisteem moet LO groter prominensie geniet. Dus, is dit van belang dat LO daagliks ‘n tydgleuf op die skoolrooster moet hê. Aanbevelings vir verdere navorsing wat ‘n rol in die resultate van die huidige studie kon gehad het, verwys na die grootte van die steekproef. Die steekproef van die huidige studie verteenwoordig nie noodwendig die res van die Graad-2 groepe in Suid-Afrika nie. Dus, word daar voorgestel dat toekomstige soortgelyke studies groter steekproewe gebruik. Dit is van belang om die regte tydperk waarin die studie gaan plaasvind te kies. Dit kan voordelig wees om soortgelyke studie later in die jaar uit te voer, veral met betrekking tot die oorgang van Graad 1 na Graad 2. Dit sal die deelnemers in staat stel om oor die nodige leesvaardighede te beskik wat hulle benodig om die voor- en na-toets te voltooi. Vasgestelde logistieke ten opsigte van ruimte moet met die skole en onderwysers uitgeklaar word. ‘n Skedule moet opgestel word vir die tydperk waarin die studie gaan plaasvind. Daar word ook sterk aanbeveel dat die studie oor ‘n langer tydperk uitgevoer word. Die veronderstelling is dat indien die intervensieprogramme oor ‘n langer tydperk plaasvind die moontlike effek van fisieke aktiwiteite op verskeie domeine (kognitief, emosioneel, sosiaal en fisiek) groter kan wees. Met al die inligting wat deur die studie na vore gebring is, word daar sterk aanbeveel dat die rol van LO in skole heroorweeg word.

Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Neuromuscular control (NMC) plays a critical role in dynamic movement regulation such as running (Nyland et al., 2011) and injury prevention (Hübcher et al., 2010). This experimental study set out to determine whether an eight-week minimalist shoe training program influences NMC in recreational distance runners. Eleven experimental (EXP) (5 women; 6 men) (age 23.4 ± 2.98 yrs; VO2max 43.55 ± 5.04 ml.min-1.kg-1; BMI 22.61 ± 3.08 kg.m2; Training 17 ± 5km.w-1) and 12 control (CON) runners (7 women; 5 men) (age 25.42 ± 5.57 yrs; VO2max 43.67 ± 4.38 ml.min-1.kg-1; BMI 22.38 ± 3.12 kg.m2; Training 18 ± 6km.w-1) randomly completed an eight-week training program in either minimalist shoe (EXP) or their usual trainers (CON). Neuromuscular control components were measured before and after the intervention i.e. postural sway (Balance Biodex®), using the Athletic Single Leg (ASL) and modified Clinical Test of Sensory Integration and Balance (mCTSIB) tests, joint position sense (JPS) using joint angle reproduction tests (Biodex® Isokinetic Dynamometer), frontal and sagittal planes isokinetic strength testing, lower body electromyography (EMG) and kinematic measurements while participants ran on a treadmill. Plantar-dorsiflexion (PF/DF) or inversion eversion (IN/EV) proprioception did not differ between groups (p > 0.05). In selected trials EXP showed less deterioration in IN/ EV foot position error, when compared to CON, with medium to large practical significance. Athletic Single Leg scores for non-dominant (p < 0.01) and dominant M/L (p = 0.05) sway, and dominant overall sway (p = 0.04) improved in CON, with marked differences between genders. Dorsiflexor strength improved for 30∘.sec-1 and 60∘.sec-1speeds in CON (p < 0.01 & p = 0.04, respectively) and in the slower speed for EXP (p = 0.04). Plantar-flexion (PF) strength improved in EXP men (30∘.sec-1 p = 0.02; 60∘.sec-1 p = 0.02), while EXP women demonstrated a 7% deficit. At initial contact PF increased in EXP (8km.h-1 p = 0.01; 10km.h-1 p = 0.01; 12km.h-1 p = 0.01), with women showing a greater change in ankle angle (8km.h-1 p = 0.03; 10km.h-1 p = 0.02; 12km.h-1 p = 0.01) compared to men (8km.h-1 p = 0.05; 10km.h-1 p = 0.06; 12km.h-1 p = 0.05). Greater knee flexion (8km.h-1 ES = 0.64; 10km.h-1 ES = 0.49; 12 km.h-1 ES = 0.51) in EXP. Plantar-flexor pre-activation improved in EXP women, while co-activation improved in EXP men and total activation improved in both genders.Results suggest that women may require more time to transition into minimalist shoes. While minimalist shoes may moderately reduce foot position error, improve strength and muscle activation patterns, excessive plantar flexor muscle damage may reduce strength and muscle spindle proprioceptive feedback. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Neuromuskulêre beheer (NMC) speel ‘n kritieke rol in dinamiese beweginsregulasie, soos met hardloop (Nyland et al., 2011) en beseringsvoorkoming (Hübscher et al., 2010). Hierdie eksperimentele studie het uit gesit om te bepaal of ‘n agt-week minimalistiese skoen oefenprogram NMB kan beïnvloed in rekreasie langafstand atlete. Elf eksperimentele (EXP) (5 vrouens, 6 mans) (ouderdom 23.4 ± 2.98 jr; VO2maks 43.55 ± 5.04 ml.min-1.kg-1; BMI 22.61 ± 3.08 kg.m2; Oefening 17 ± 5km.w-1) en twaalf kontrole (CON) hardlopers (7 vrouens, 5 mans) (ouderdom 25.42 ± 5.57; VO2maks 43.67 ± 4.38 ml.min-1.kg-1; BMI 22.38 ± 3.12 kg.m2; Oefening 18 ± 6 km.w-1) het lukraak ‘n agt-week oefenprogram voltooi, óf in minimalistiese skoene (EXP) of in hul gewone hardlooptekkies (CON). Neuromuskulêre beheer komponente was gemeet voor en na die intervensie i. e. posturale wieg (Balans Biodex®), met gebruik van Atletiese Enkelbeentoets (ASL) en die gemodifiseerde Kliniese Toets van Sensoriese Integrasie en Balans (mCTSIB), gewrigs posisie bewustheid (Biodex® Isokinetiese Dinamometer), frontale en sagitalle vlak isokinetiese kragtoetsing, onderlyf elektromiografie (EMG) en biomeganiese metings terwyl deelnemers op ‘n trapmeul gehardloop het. Plantaar dorsifleksie (PF/DF) of inversie eversie (IN/EV) propriosepsie het nie verskil tussen groepe nie (p > 0.05). In selektiewe proewe het EXP IN/ EV ‘n verminderde afname gehad in foutiewe voet posisieplasings, in vergelyking met CON, terwyl medium na groot praktiese betekenisvolle verskille. . Atleet enkel been toets tellings vir nie-dominant (p=0.001) en dominante M/L (p = 0.05) wieg, en dominant algehele wieg (p = 0.04) het verbeter in CON, met gemerkte verskille tussen geslagte. Dorsifleksor krag het verbeter vir 30∘.sec-1 en 60∘.sec-1spoed in CON (p = 0.01 en p = 0.04, onderskeidelik) en in die stadiger spoed vir EXP (p = 0.04). Plantaarfleksie (PF) krag het verbeter in EXP mans (30∘.sek-1 p = 0.02; 60∘.sek-1 p = 0.02), terwyl EXP vrouens ‘n 7% tekort gedemonstreer het. By initïele kontak het PF toegeneem in EXP (8km.h-1 p = 0.01; 10km.h-1 p = 0.01; 12km.h-1 p = 0.01), met vrouens wat ‘n groter verandering getoon het (8km.h-1 p = 0.03; 10km.h-1 p = 0.02; 12km.h-1 p = 0.01), in vergelyking met mans (8km.h-1 p = 0.05; 10km.h-1 p = 0.06; 12km.h-1 p = 0.05). Groter kniefleksie (8km.h-1 ES = 0.64; 10km.h-1 ES = 0.49; 12 km.h-1 ES = 0.51) in EXP. Plantaarfleksie pre-aktivering het verbeter in EXP vrouens, terwyl ko-aktivering verbeter het in EXP mans, en totale aktivering verbeter het in beide geslagte.Hierdie resultate stel voor dat vrouens moontlik meer tyd sal vereis om na minimalistiese skoene oor te skakel. Terwyl minimalistiese skoene matige verbetering in foutiewe voetposisieplasing, verbeterde krag en spieraktiveringspatrone kan veroorsaak, kan oormatige plantaarfleksie spierskade krag en spierspoel proprioseptiewe terugvoer ook verminder.

Thesis (PhD (Sport Science))—University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / This study was designed to gain a better understanding of the way in which the quality of the sport-career termination is quantitatively affected by athletic and non-athletic factors. A further objective of this study was to contribute and broaden the knowledge base on the athletic careertermination process and endeavour to add new information to the existent body of knowledge on the career-ending process in the world of sport. This study is a sport-specific view on South African track and field and road running athletes’ retrospective views on their retirement. In line with the relevant literature, the influence of athletic (voluntariness and gradualness of sport-career termination, subjective view of athletic achievements, postsport life planning, and athletic identity) and non-athletic factors (e.g., age, educational status) on different aspects of sport-career difficulties was investigated. In phase 1 of the research, 104 retired track and field athletes completed an adapted version of the Cecic-Erpic’s (2000) Sports Career Termination Questionnaire II (SCTQ II). These athletes had been retired for no less than one year with an athletic career at national and international level and were asked to describe in retrospect their experiences and reactions to their athletic career termination. The SCTQII was developed to evaluate the characteristics of the sport-career termination process, the characteristics of the active sport-careertermination transition to post-sport life, and adaptation to post-sport life. In phase 2 of the study, 23 retired South African elite athletes were individually interviewed. An interview guide was developed which probed the sport career of the athletes in depth, from the initial start to the sport career to the process of disengaging from elite sport. The data from the interviews were content analysed.

Thesis (PhDSportwet)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of participation in a special squad-based talent development programme on selected physical variables and skills in adolescent girls. This investigation was initiated in the team sport of netball in order to determine if participation in a talent development programme of this kind can be successful in the South African context. A second purpose was to consider the effectiveness of the squad-based model in relation to the traditional school-based model that is commonly implemented for talent development in South African netball. This study followed a static group design in a field setting. The squad-based group (N=22) was composed of netball players ages 14 – 18 years old from two senior high schools in a previously disadvantaged community. The school-based group (N=45) was composed of netball players from the first and second teams at three schools in the same region, that maintained a good standard of netball and had qualified coaches. The subjects in the squad-based group participated in a special eight-month training programme, which consisted out of 2 training sessions (90minutes) and 1 match per week. The subjects in the school-based group participated in their normal pattern of netball practices and school matches. The results of this study lead to some general conclusions about the squadbased training model: • Four components of skill development improved significantly • Significant changes were found in four of the physical variables associated with netball performance. • The squad-based model appeared to have been significantly more effective than the school-based model in the development of the physical variables of flexibility, speed, throwing velocity and aerobic fitness.Based on the results the squad-based model is proposed as an approach to talent development that can make a significant contribution to the development of skill. Continuous refinement of current models and even the creation of new models, may one day create systems where every child can reach toward his or her own sporting potential. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie behels die deelname van ‘n geselekteerde oefengroep adollessente meisies aan ‘n talentontwikkelingsprogram. Die doel van die studie was om die invloed van deelname aan sodanige program op gekose fisiek- en vaardigheidskomponente na te gaan. Netbal, as ‘n spansport, is gebruik om te bepaal of hierdie tipe talentontwikkelingsprogramme suksesvol in die huidige Suid- Afrikaanse konteks kan wees. ‘n Verdere doelwit was om die effektiwiteit van hierdie oefengroepmodel teenoor die meer tradisionele skoolgebaseerde-model, wat tans algemeen in Suid-Afrikaanse netbal toegepas word, na te gaan. Die studie het ‘n statiese-groepontwerp gevolg in ‘n veldtoetsing omgewing. Die oefengroep (N=22) het bestaan uit netbalspeelsters tussen die ouderdomme 14-18 jaar, van twee senior hoërskole vanuit die agtergeblewe gemeenskappe. Die skoolgebaseerde groep (N=45) het bestaan uit speelsters van die eerste en tweede netbalspanne van drie skole in dieselfde streek. Hierdie drie skole beskik oor gekwalifiseerde afrigters en handhaaf ‘n hoë speelstandaard. Die speelsters van die oefengroep het aan ‘n spesiale agtmaande oefenprogram deelgeneem, met twee oefensessies per week (90 minute) asook een wedstryd per week. Die netbalspeelsters in die skoolgebaseerde-program het hulle normale oefenpatroon gevolg en aan skoolwedstryde deelgeneem. Die resultate van hierdie studie het gelei tot sekere algemene gevolgtrekkings omtrent die geselekteerde oefengroepmodel: • Vier komponente van die spelvaardighede het statisties beduidend verbeter. • Beduidende statistiese veranderinge is waargeneem in vier van die fisieke komponente wat met netbal geassosieer word. • Dit blyk dat die oefengroepmodel statisties meer effektief was in die onwikkeling van fisieke komponente soos lenigheid, spoed, aerobiese fiksheid en spoed van gooie, as die skoolgebaseerde oefengroep.Gebaseer op die resultate van die oefengroepmodel, kan hierdie benadering tot ontwikkeling ‘n beduidende verskil maak in die ontwikkeling van netbalvaardighede. Verdere verfyning van huidige talentontwikkelinsgmodelle, mag in die toekoms aanleiding gee tot bruikbare sisteme waar elke deelnemer die kans gegun sal word om sy sportpotensiaal te bereik.