Este trabalho tem por objetivo propor uma nova metodologia para o cálculo das perdas por segmento do sistema de distribuição. As perdas técnicas são agrupadas nos seguintes segmentos: rede secundária, transformador de distribuição, rede primária e subestação de distribuição. Desenvolveu-se uma metodologia destinada ao cálculo das perdas de forma hierárquica: por exemplo, selecionada uma subestação específica, são calculadas as perdas na subestação e em seus componentes a jusante (redes primárias, transformadores de distribuição, redes secundárias). As perdas, inicialmente, são obtidas por meio de cálculo elétrico para os segmentos envolvidos, com a utilização dos parâmetros da rede, com os dados de faturamento e as curvas de carga típicas por classe de consumidor e seus tipos de atividade. Com os resultados desses cálculos, treinam-se redes neurais que irão calcular as perdas em sistemas genéricos utilizando os parâmetros e topologia do segmento e as curvas típicas de cargas dos consumidores e a energia mensal consumida. O trabalho apresenta um exemplo de aplicação, em sistema de distribuição existente, mostrando os resultados obtidos, e termina apresentando as principais vantagens da metodologia. Finalmente, os resultados obtidos com a nova metodologia são comparados com os resultados obtidos por métodos analíticos de cálculo intensivo. / In this work, a new methodology for the calculation of the energy technical losses in a distribution system, is presented. The proposed approach regards the segmentation of the distribution system, thus, the losses will be obtained for segments such as: the secondary network, distribution transformer, primary network and distribution substation. It was developed a computational system aimed to the calculation of the technical losses within specific distribution networks and usable in a microcomputer. Such a calculation is done in a hierarchical way. For instance, once selected a specific substation it is calculated the losses within the substation and in all the above cited components existing downstream the substation. The energy technical losses are calculated for each segment involved in the distribution system. This is done by using the network\'s recorded data, the energy consumption data and the typical load curves by class of consumer and type of activity developed. The outcome of these calculations are then used to train the neural networks, which in turn will calculate the losses in generic distribution systems where characteristics such as the circuit parameters and topology, the consumer\'s load curves and the monthly energy consumed, are known. By using the energy data available in the supplying points, the total energy billed per month as well as the loss indexes per segment, it will be obtained the total amount of the energy losses in each segment of the system. Likewise, this procedure will enable an evaluation of the non technical losses. The results of a case study related to an existing distribution system and the main advantages of the proposed methodology, are also presented herein. Finally, the results obtained with the new methodology are compared with those obtained through analytical methods.

Este trabalho trata do UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller), que corresponde a um dos mais promissores dispositivos FACTS de última geração, pois apresenta a capacidade de controle independente de todos os parâmetros básicos do sistema elétrico de potência (tensão, impedância e ângulo de fase). Com base nos modelos já propostos para representação deste equipamento em regime permanente, é realizada análise e proposta de um modelo que permite uma abordagem prática, para simulação do UPFC em softwares de fluxo de potência comerciais que não possuem modelos dedicados para este dispositivo. São revisitados os conceitos associados ao UPFC, com apresentação dos modelos analisados e seus respectivos parâmetros, assim como os equipamentos instalados e estimativa de custos para implantação. Através de simulações utilizando o modelo de transformador ideal associado à impedância do transformador série e compensador estático, são obtidos os parâmetros para o modelo de injeção de potências e realizadas simulações que demonstram a equivalência entre estes modelos. Finalmente, é realizada a análise de aplicação do UPFC em um sistema de distribuição de alta tensão, onde há forte presença de geração distribuída com sua sazonalidade característica e linhas que realizam a interligação entre diferentes fontes do sistema, havendo a necessidade de controle do fluxo de potência e melhoria dos níveis de tensão em função dos critérios técnicos e aspectos regulatórios. / This work is about UPFC which corresponds to one of the most promising last generation FACTS device, for it presents independent control in all basic parameters of the electrical power system (voltage, impedance and phase angle). Based on models that have already been proposed to represent this equipment in steady state, an analysis has been made and a model that permits practical approach is proposed to simulate the UPFC in commercial power flow softwares that do not yet support this device. The associated UPFC concepts are revisited with the presentation of analyzed models and their respective parameters as well as the installed equipments and cost estimate for implementation. Through simulations using ideal transformer associated to the series transformer impedance and static Var compensator model, parameters are obtained for the power injection model and simulations were run that showed a similarity between these models. Finally, a UPFC application analysis was done for a region of high voltage distribution system, where there is a strong presence of distributed generation typically seasonal and lines which connect different sources of the system, having the necessity of controlling the power flow and improvement of the voltage levels due to the technical criteria and regulatory aspects.

Este trabalho propõe o desenvolvimento e implantação, em computador, de uma metodologia para tratamento de diversas etapas do processo de estimação de estado em Sistemas de Distribuição (SDs), que possibilite um tratamento adequado para as particularidades dos SDs no contexto atual (com poucas medidas disponíveis) e futuro (contando com mais medidas SCADA, com as Medidas Fasoriais Sincronizadas (MFSs) e com as avançadas infra-estruturas de medição), ou seja, que possibilite: análise de sistemas desbalanceados e desequilibrados, com ramais monofásicos, bifásicos e trifásicos; o tratamento de sistemas radiais e malhados sem perda de precisão; uma modelagem adequada dos componentes dos SDs, considerando as várias possibilidades de conexão dos transformadores e dos reguladores de tensão; o tratamento de diversos tipos de medidas (medidas convencionais obtidas pelo sistema SCADA, medidas virtuais, pseudo-medidas de carga e de dados históricos e MFSs), ponderando-as de acordo com as respectivas precisões. A metodologia proposta baseia-se no método dos mínimos quadrados ponderados, trabalha no nível dos alimentadores e compreende os seguintes quatro estágios: Estágio 1 geração de pseudo-medidas de carga; Estágio 2 - análise e restauração de observabilidade e identificação de medidas críticas; Estágio 3 - estimação de estado propriamente dita; e Estágio 4 - processamento de erros grosseiros. Tendo em vista as respostas coerentes das diversas simulações realizadas com os alimentadores de teste trifásicos de 4 e 34 barras do IEEE, demonstra-se satisfatoriamente a performance da metodologia proposta. / This thesis proposes a multi-phase unbalanced distribution system (DS) state estimation methodology based on the weighted least squares technique, which allows: load pseudo-measurement modeling; observability analysis and restoration by selecting the required pseudo-measurements (load pseudo-measurements and/or historical measurement data); identication of critical measurements; state estimation; and, nally, gross errors processing. The proposed methodology intends to be a practical tool able to be applied to a variety of DSs, considering latest and future realities. Therefore, the proposed methodology has the following features: (i) includes all realistic DS modeling details, such as, various types of transformer and voltage regulator connections, the presence of single, two and three-phase circuits, as well as the possibility of both the mutual coupling between phases and the shunt susceptance; (ii) treat three-phase networks with high resistance/reactance ratios in a unied framework; and (iii) process measurements with very distinct qualities, some of them are real-time measurements provided by Supervisory Control Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs), other are virtual measurements (information provided by the buses of zero power injection) and also the pseudo-measurements (load pseudo-measurements, load proles and historical measurement data). Several simulations results (with IEEE 34 and 4 node test feeders) have demonstrated satisfactory performance of the proposed methodology.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo propor uma nova metodologia para o cálculo das perdas por segmento do sistema de distribuição. As perdas técnicas são agrupadas nos seguintes segmentos: rede secundária, transformador de distribuição, rede primária e subestação de distribuição. Desenvolveu-se uma metodologia destinada ao cálculo das perdas de forma hierárquica: por exemplo, selecionada uma subestação específica, são calculadas as perdas na subestação e em seus componentes a jusante (redes primárias, transformadores de distribuição, redes secundárias). As perdas, inicialmente, são obtidas por meio de cálculo elétrico para os segmentos envolvidos, com a utilização dos parâmetros da rede, com os dados de faturamento e as curvas de carga típicas por classe de consumidor e seus tipos de atividade. Com os resultados desses cálculos, treinam-se redes neurais que irão calcular as perdas em sistemas genéricos utilizando os parâmetros e topologia do segmento e as curvas típicas de cargas dos consumidores e a energia mensal consumida. O trabalho apresenta um exemplo de aplicação, em sistema de distribuição existente, mostrando os resultados obtidos, e termina apresentando as principais vantagens da metodologia. Finalmente, os resultados obtidos com a nova metodologia são comparados com os resultados obtidos por métodos analíticos de cálculo intensivo. / In this work, a new methodology for the calculation of the energy technical losses in a distribution system, is presented. The proposed approach regards the segmentation of the distribution system, thus, the losses will be obtained for segments such as: the secondary network, distribution transformer, primary network and distribution substation. It was developed a computational system aimed to the calculation of the technical losses within specific distribution networks and usable in a microcomputer. Such a calculation is done in a hierarchical way. For instance, once selected a specific substation it is calculated the losses within the substation and in all the above cited components existing downstream the substation. The energy technical losses are calculated for each segment involved in the distribution system. This is done by using the network\'s recorded data, the energy consumption data and the typical load curves by class of consumer and type of activity developed. The outcome of these calculations are then used to train the neural networks, which in turn will calculate the losses in generic distribution systems where characteristics such as the circuit parameters and topology, the consumer\'s load curves and the monthly energy consumed, are known. By using the energy data available in the supplying points, the total energy billed per month as well as the loss indexes per segment, it will be obtained the total amount of the energy losses in each segment of the system. Likewise, this procedure will enable an evaluation of the non technical losses. The results of a case study related to an existing distribution system and the main advantages of the proposed methodology, are also presented herein. Finally, the results obtained with the new methodology are compared with those obtained through analytical methods.

Management and supply of water in an urban water distribution system is a complex process, which include various complexities like pressure variations across the network depending on topography, demand variations depending on customers’ requirement and unaccounted water etc. Applying automatic control methods to water distribution systems is a way to improve the management of water distribution. There have been some attempts in recent years to develop optimal control algorithms to assist in the operation of complex water distribution systems. The difficulties involved by these hydraulic systems such as non-linearity, and diurnal demand patterns make the choice of a suitable automatic control method a challenge. For this purpose, this study intends to investigate the applicability of different controllers which would be able to meet the targets as quickly as possible and without creating undue transients. As a first step towards application of different controllers, PD and PID linear controllers have been designed for pump control and valve control in water distribution systems. Then a Dynamic Inversion based nonlinear controller has been designed by considering the non-linearities in the system. Here, different cases considering the effects of initial conditions used, linearization methods used, time step used for integration and selection of gains etc., have been studied before arriving at best controller. These controllers have been designed for both the flow control problems and level control problems. It is found that Dynamic Inversion-based nonlinear controller outperforms other controllers. It is well known that the performance of controllers is much dependent on the tuning of the gains (parameters). Thus in this study various alternative techniques such as Ziegler--Nichols rules (ZNPID), Genetic algorithms (GAPID) and fuzzy algorithms (FZPID) have been studied and a comparative study has been made Although with all the three gain tuning methods, required states have reached their target values, but the responses vary much in reaching to final targets. The self-tuned FZPID controller outperforms other two controllers, especially with regard to overshoots and the time taken to tune the gains for each problem. Further, an optimal DI controller is developed for the over determined case with more controls and less targets. Energy loss is considered as an objective function and normal DI controller equations are considered as constraints. Hence, an attempt is made to reduce the energy minimization in water distribution system by formulating an optimal control problem using optimal Dynamic Inversion concept. Finally, leakage reduction model is developed based on excessive pressure minimization problem by locating valves optimally as well as by setting valves optimally. For this purpose, optimization problem is solved using Pattern search algorithms and hydraulic analysis is carried out using EPANET program.

Electric power distribution network is an important part of electrical power systems for delivering electricity to consumers. Electric power utilities worldwide are increasingly adopting the computer aided monitoring, control and management of electric power distribution systems to provide better services to the electrical consumers. Therefore, research and development activities worldwide are being carried out to automate the electric power distribution system. The power distribution system consists of a three-phase source supplying power through single-, two-, or three-phase distribution lines, switches, and transformers to a set of buses with a given load demand. In addition, unlike transmission systems, single-, two-, and three-phase sections exist in the network and single-, two-, and three-phase loads exist in the distribution networks. Further, most distribution systems are overhead systems, which are susceptible to faults caused by a variety of situations such as adverse weather conditions, equipment failure, traffic accidents, etc. When a fault occurs on a distribution line, it is very important for the utility to identify the fault location as quickly as possible for improving the service reliability. Hence, one of the crucial blocks in the operation of distribution system is that of fault detection and it’s location. The achievement of this objective depends on the success of the distribution automation system. The distribution automation system should be implemented quickly and accurately in order to isolate those affected branches from the healthy parts and to take alternative measures to restore normal power supply. Fault location in the distribution system is a difficult task due to its high complexity and difficulty caused by unique characteristics of the distribution system. These unique characteristics are discussed in the present work. In recent years, some techniques have been discussed for the location of faults, particularly in radial distribution systems. These methods use various algorithmic approaches, where the fault location is iteratively calculated by updating the fault current. Heuristic and Expert System approaches for locating fault in distribution system are also proposed which uses more measurements. Measurements are assumed to be available at the sending end of the faulty line segment, which are not true in reality as the measurements are only available at the substation and at limited nodes of the distribution networks through the use of remote terminal units. The emerging techniques of Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be a solution to this problem. Among the various AI based techniques like Expert systems, Fuzzy Set and ANN systems, the ANN approach for fault location is found to be encouraging. In this thesis, an ANN approaches with limited measurements are used to locate fault in long distribution networks with laterals. Initially the distribution system modeling (using actual a-b-c phase representation) for three-, two-, and single-phase laterals, three-, two-, and single- phase loads are described. Also an efficient three-phase load flow and short circuit analysis with loads are described which is used to simulate all types of fault conditions on distribution systems. In this work, function approximation (FA) is the main technique used and the classification techniques take a major supportive role to the FA problem. Fault location in distribution systems is explained as a FA problem, which is difficult to solve due to the various practical constraints particular to distribution systems. Incorporating classification techniques reduce this FA problem to simpler ones. The function that is approximated is the relation between the three-phase voltage and current measurements at the substation and at selected number of buses (inputs), and the line impedance of the fault points from the substation (outputs). This function is approximated by feed forward neural network (FFNN). Similarly for solving the classification problems such as fault type classification and source short circuit level classification, Radial Basis Probabilistic Neural Network (RBPNN) has been employed. The work presented in this thesis is the combinational use of FFNN and RBPNN for estimating the fault location. Levenberg Marquardt learning method, which is robust and fast, is used for training FFNN. A typical unbalanced 11-node test system, an IEEE 34 nodes test system and a practical 69- bus long distribution systems with different configurations are considered for the study. The results show that the proposed approaches of fault location gives accurate results in terms of estimated fault location. Practical situations in distribution systems such as unbalanced loading, three-, two-, and single- phase laterals, limited measurements available, all types of faults, a wide range of varying source short circuit levels, varying loading conditions, long feeders with multiple laterals and different network configurations are considered for the study. The result shows the feasibility of applying the proposed method in practical distribution system fault diagnosis.

<p>The Swedish electricity market was de-regulated in 1996, followed by new laws and a new regulation applied to the natural monopolies of electrical distribution systems (EDS). These circumstances have motivated distribution systems operators (DSOs) to introduce more comprehensive analysis methods. The laws, the regulation and additional incentives have been investigated within this work and results from this study can be valuable when developing risk methods or other quantitative methods applied to EDS. This tendency is not unique for Sweden, the results from a comparative study of customer outage compensation laws between Sweden and UK is for example included.</p><p>As a part of investigating these incentives, studies of the Swedish regulation of customer network tariffs have been performed which provide valuable learning when developing regulation models in different countries. The Swedish regulatory model, referred to as the Network Performance Assessment Model (NPAM), was created for one of the first de-regulated electricity markets in the world and has a unique and novel approach. For the first time, an overall presentation of the NPAM has been performed including description of the underlying theory as a part of this work. However, the model has been met by difficulties and the future usage of the model is uncertain. Furthermore, the robustness of the NPAM has been evaluated in two studies with the main conclusion that the NPAM is sensitive toward small variations in input data. Results from these studies are explained theoretically investigating algorithms of the NPAM.</p><p>A pre-study of a project on developing international test systems is presented and this ongoing project aims to be a useful input when developing risk methods. An application study is included with the approach to systematically describe the overall risk management process at a DSO including an evaluation and ideas of future developments. The main objective is to support DSOs in the development of risk management, and to give academic reference material to utilize industry experience. An idea of a risk management classification has been concluded from this application study. The study provides an input to the final objective of a quantitative risk method.</p>

The future operation of public low voltage networks has to consider increased decentralised generation using photovoltaic systems for residential application. For utilities it is necessary to determine the maximum permissible installed power of residential photovoltaic systems in sections of the low-voltage network. For this purpose a method based on modelling low-voltage network structures, occurring loads and insolation situations is presented and demonstrated. The maximum permissible installed power of residential photovoltaic systems is fundamentally determined by the structure of the settlement of the affected low-voltage network section. By modifying the generator model the method can be applied too for other types of decentralized generators in the low-voltage network such as fuel cell systems. / Für den Betrieb des öffentlichen Niederspannungsnetzes in Wohnsiedlungsgebieten ist zukünftig mit einem verstärkten Einsatz dezentraler photovoltaischer Energiewandlungsanlagen zu rechnen. Für Netzbetreiber ist es erforderlich, die maximal zulässige Netzanschlussleistung derartiger Anlagen für Niederspannungs-Netzbezirke zu bestimmen. Dazu wird ein Verfahren auf der Grundlage der Modellierung der Struktur von Netzbezirken, der dort auftretenden Belastungen und Einstrahlungssituationen vorgestellt und demonstriert. Die maximal zulässige Netzanschlussleistung dezentraler photovoltaischer Energiewandlungsanlagen wird wesentlich durch die Siedlungsstruktur des betreffenden Niederspannungs-Netzbezirkes bestimmt. Durch Modifikation des Erzeugermodelles kann das Verfahren auch für andere dezentrale Kleinerzeuger im Niederspannungsnetz angewandt werden.

This report addresses the consequences of the Iraqi Public Distribution System (PDS), a food rationing system managed by the Iraqi Ministry of Trade (MoT), administered by the U.N. World Food Programme (WFP), and supported with U.S. food aid. The Saddam Hussein administration created the PDS as emergency food aid in 1991 when United Sanctions (UN) sanctions made food imports to Iraq difficult. After more than two decades in operation, the PDS has developed long-term negative effects on Iraq’s most vulnerable populations. Specific vulnerable populations include Iraqi War Widows, Iraqi farmers, and Internally Displaced Persons (IDP). This report introduces the current Public Distribution System following a thorough background on the development of government-citizen relations, Sunni-Shi’i dynamics, and urban-rural economies throughout the twentieth Century in Iraq. The PDS harms the most food vulnerable Iraqis more than it assists them in the long run because of the unreliable delivery times, poor quality of the PDS goods, and depreciation of the local food market; therefore, the WFP and Iraqi MoT should limit the PDS recipients, improve the efficiency and quality of fewer goods in the PDS basket, and strengthen Iraq’s agriculture sector to provide for the current market and wheat exports. Based on an analysis of the U.S. farm bill, this paper recommends a shift in U.S. food aid from distributing American surplus crops as food aid. The U.S. government should focus on building capacity in the Iraqi agriculture sector with a model similar to the Obama Administration’s Feed the Future (FTF) initiative. / text

本研究主要在探討台灣壽險業健康保險損失率之影響因素。首先，了解健康險損失率是否因為壽險公司規模不同而有顯著差異。再者，將壽險公司依主要專注之通路類型分為三類，包括業務員通路、經代通路以及其他通路，而觀察通路對於健康險損失率的影響情形。最後，藉由個體變數與總體變數之分析，期望以其他不同的角度協助保險公司未來對於損失率的風險控制。 研究結果發現： (一)當壽險公司之資產規模不同時，對於健康險損失率有顯著差異上的影響。大型壽險公司的平均健康險損失率顯著高於小型壽險公司之健康險平均損失率。 (二)壽險公司行銷通路的注重程度不同，確實會使健康保險損失率產生顯著的差異。研究結果發現其他通路運用程度越高的壽險公司，其健康險損失率顯著比使用經代人通路和業務員通路的壽險公司之損失率低。 (三)本研究發現健康險損失率受到總體因素的影響，一般而言比壽險公司個體因素的影響微弱。個體因素確實會顯著影響壽險公司健康險損失率，而且壽險公司不同的規模型態，其主要影響健康險損失率的因素亦會有所不同。 / This study examines the factors that influence the loss ratio of health insurance policies for life insurance companies in Taiwan. First, this thesis intends to investigate whether there are significant differences in loss ratios among insurers due to firm size. Secondly, the impact of marketing channels on health insurance loss ratio is analyzed where the distribution systems mainly used by insurers are divided into three categories: employee sales, agent/broker channel, and others. Finally, this study conducts regression analyses on the health insurance loss ratio with firm-specific and macroeconomic variables to help insurers in controlling risks in the future. The empirical results are shown as follows. 1.The loss ratios of health insurance vary significantly with firm size. The loss ratio of large insurance companies is significantly higher than that of small insurances companies. 2.Distribution system has a significant impact on the loss ratio of health insurance. When the insurer relies more on other channels, instead of employee sales and agent/broker, the insurer will have lower loss ratio. 3.The impact of macroeconomic variables on the loss ratio of health insurance is less than that of firm-specific variables. Additionally, the influential variables for loss ratio may be different between insurers of large and small sizes.