Biodiversity is a complex concept encapsulating the variation that occurs within and among levels of biological organization. It is positively linked to ecosystem persistence, adaptability, and function. Biodiversity loss, driven by global change and human activities, is one of the most prominent threats to ecosystems. Characterizing the variation of and processes driving biodiversity is a critical step in understanding the causes, consequences, and magnitude of biodiversity loss. However, characterizing biodiversity comprehensively requires understanding multiple dimensions, or types, of diversity, such as genetic, taxonomic, phylogenetic, and life history diversity, that encompass both ecological and evolutionary processes varying across space and time. In this dissertation, I investigate spatial and temporal variation in frog and toad (order Anura) biodiversity to understand the effects of how diversity is measured on biodiversity characterization and the underlying processes driving biodiversity. In my first chapter, I examined the spatial and temporal variation of genetic diversity and other population genetic metrics to understand the effects of multi-year sampling on population genetic inference in an anuran metapopulation (Arizona treefrog, Hyla (Dryophytes) wrightorum). I found that a single sample year captures global, but not local, population genetic dynamics, as there is considerable temporal variation in genetic metrics within individual populations. In my second chapter, I developed a tool to improve the characterization of anuran life history diversity using species traits. Traits are the measurable attributes of species, and a suite of species traits is used to distinguish ecological strategies found among species. I collated trait data from 411 primary and secondary sources for 106 anuran species found in the United States to develop an anuran traits database for use in conservation, management, and research. In my third chapter, I investigated spatial variation within and among taxonomic, phylogenetic, and life history anuran diversity in the United States and examined the abiotic relationships behind observed patterns. To do this, I developed species distribution models at a 1 km2 resolution for the majority of the native US anurans. I identified relationships among diversity metrics for improved, comprehensive biodiversity characterization and potential ecological and evolutionary processes underlying biodiversity. Spatial variation in multidimensional relationships highlights regional needs for multiple metrics of diversity to comprehensively characterize biodiversity. This spatial variation is driven by temperature, elevation, and water availability, likely related to the biological limits for anurans. Collectively, these chapters highlight the considerable variation that exists within and among species of a broad and diverse biological. Furthermore, these chapters call attention to the importance of measuring multiple biodiversity dimensions for effective conservation in a rapidly changing world. / Doctor of Philosophy / Biodiversity loss, from global change and human activities, is one of the biggest threats to the Earth's ecosystems. Biodiversity is the similarities and differences in organismal characteristics, such as their genetics, evolutionary history, and ecology. Biodiversity is often linked to how well an ecosystem will persist and adapt to global change. To understand the causes and consequences of biodiversity loss, it is important to first measure diversity and what shapes it. However, there are many types of diversity and ways to measure them, such as the number of species in a system, or species richness, the span of evolutionary lineages in a system, or phylogenetic diversity, the number of roles species fill in a system, or life history diversity, and the genetic relationships within individuals and populations, or genetic diversity. In this dissertation, I investigate how our understanding of biodiversity is affected by the ways it can be measured and the relationship among those metrics. To do this, I studied diversity in three ways for frogs and toads of the United States. First, I investigated whether sampling across multiple years is necessary to adequately characterize genetic diversity in a frog species (Arizona treefrog: Hyla (Dryophytes) wrightorum) with populations that fluctuate in size over time. Here, I found that multiple sample years are necessary to capture the genetic variation within individual populations over time, but unnecessary to capture the average genetic variation among all populations over space and time. Second, I developed a tool to improve our ability to measure anuran life history diversity using traits. Traits are measurable attributes of species, and multiple species traits can be used to define the role of a species in an ecosystem. I collected trait data from 411 sources for 106 frog and toad species found in the United States to develop a traits database for use in conservation, management, and research. Third, I investigated the similarities in multiple diversity metrics across the United States using species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and life history diversity. Species richness is highest in the eastern US, phylogenetic diversity is highest in the western US, and life history diversity is clustered around eastern US mountains. These regional relationships among metrics coincided with regional water availability, temperature, and elevation. These results collectively call attention to changes over space and time in frog and toad diversity and how the relationships within and among diversity types relate to our understanding of frog and toad biodiversity. Considering how, where, and when to measure biodiversity can lead to more effect biodiversity conservation in a rapidly changing world.

This report, presents an analytical framework for analyzing two-branch diversity systems for a Rayleigh fading channel. In many cases the fading received at both branches (i.e. a two-antenna element system) is correlated because of the proximity of the antenna elements to each other. It is also not uncommon for a diversity system to use antennas with different patterns or polarizations, this usually results in differences in average signal-to-noise ratios at both branches depending on which element is better matched to the signal environment. As will be shown, the performance of a diversity system depends greatly on the envelope correlation, average power imbalance and the combining scheme used on both branches. An analytical expression for the probability density function of the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of a two-branch maximal ratio and selection diversity system is developed in this report. The two branches are assumed to be Rayleigh fading, correlated, as well as of unequal signal-to-noise ratios. Measurements were made in Rayleigh fading channels and compared to the analytical results. The analytical cumulative distribution functions (derived using probability distributions) were found to be within 1 dB of the measured results (statistics obtained from time combining) for both maximal ratio and selection diversity attesting to the validity of the analytic results. Also developed in this report are the exact analytical average probabilities of symbol error for coherent BPSK and coherent QPSK before and after maximal ratio combining for this environment. The diversity gain for selection, maximal ratio, and equal gain combining for the 10% probability level is presented as a function of power imbalance and correlation between branches for a two-branch Rayleigh diversity system / Master of Science

No description available.

O objetivo desta tese foi localizar e analisar como o tema da diversidade entra na pauta das políticas educacionais brasileiras e se apresenta nos documentos finais das Conferências Nacionais de Educação de 2010 e 2014, nas novas Diretrizes Curriculares Gerais Nacionais da Educação Básica e no Plano Nacional de Educação 2014-2024, evidenciando os limites, os avanços e as possibilidades para a concretização da política educacional de/para a diversidade efetivamente para todos e todas. Com base no referencial teórico-metodológico materialista histórico dialético, procurou-se evidenciar as condições políticas, econômicas e socioculturais que possibilitaram colocar na pauta da educação brasileira as questões que permeiam a diversidade. Os dados que permitiram responder à questão central desta tese foram encontrados na análise das ações do governo brasileiro referentes ao tema no período de 2002 a 2014, e nos documentos acima referenciados. Também foram analisados alguns dos documentos da Unesco sobre a temática, a fim de entender o que tal instituição chama de políticas de/para a diversidade. Foi verificado que a diversidade, enquanto temática, entra na pauta da educação brasileira devido a dois fatores principais: por meio da influência dos movimentos sociais de cunho identitário e por influência da Unesco. Ao serem analisadas as ações dos dois primeiros mandatos do Partido dos Trabalhadores no governo federal, verificaram-se avanços, através de um novo arranjo institucional que possibilitou a criação de uma série de secretarias especiais para tratar questões referentes ao tema. Dentre elas, destaca-se a Secretaria de Educação Continuada, Alfabetização e Diversidade, com seus inúmeros programas e ações voltadas para as questões que permeiam a temática. Tais secretarias tornaram-diálogo entre os movimentos sociais identitários e o governo. sAeo uman aclaisnaarl does documentos produzidos a partir das duas Conferências Nacionais de Educação (Conae, em 2010 e 2014), verificaram-se avanços na discussão e proposição das políticas que tratam da diversidade. Considerou-se que tal avanço se deu na medida em que as referidas conferências contaram com a participação da sociedade civil organizada, dos movimentos sociais e de profissionais da educação. Verificou-se um retrocesso quando o Plano Nacional da Educação, originado da primeira Conae, foi votado no Congresso Nacional, tendo sido retirada a ênfase na promoção da igualdade racial, regional, de gênero e de orientação sexual, sendo substituídos por termos mais genéricos, sob a alegação de que o texto legal deve primar pela clareza e objetividade. Com essa substituição, deixou-se de nomear as desigualdades a serem combatidas, desconsiderando-se a intenção do processo democrático de elaboração do texto, que se deu através da Conae. / enters the agenda of Brazilian educational policies and is presented in the final documents of the National Conference on Education 2010 and 2014, the new National General Curriculum Guidelines for Basic Education and the National Educational Plan 2014-2024, showing the limits, advances and possibilities for the implementation of the education policy from / to diversity effectively to each and all. Based on the theoretical and methodological framework of Dialectical and Historical Materialism, it was pursued to highlight the political, economic and socio-cultural conditions that made possible to put the diversity issues on the agenda of Brazilian education. The data that allowed answering the central question of this thesis were found in the analysis of the Brazilian government's actions on the topic from 2002 to 2014, and in the above referenced documents. It was also analyzed some of the UNESCO documents on the topic in order to understand what that institution calls policies from / to diversity. It was found that diversity as a theme enters the agenda of Brazilian education due to two main factors: through the influence of the social movements of identity nature and the influence of UNESCO. By analyzing the actions of the first two terms of the Workers Party in the federal government, there have been advances, through a new institutional arrangement that enabled the creation of a number of special departments to address issues related to the topic. rsity, with its numerous programs and actions for the issues that surround the theme. These departments have become a channel for dialogue between identity social movements and the government. By analyzing the documents produced from Conferences on Education (CONAE 2010 and 2014), there have b etheen tawdov aNnacteiosn ianl the discussion and proposal of policies dealing with diversity. It was considered that such advance came in since the conferences had the participation of civil society organizations, social movements and education professionals. There was a regression when the National Education Plan, originated by the first CONAE, was voted in Congress, having been withdrawn the emphasis on promoting racial, regional, gender and sexual orientation equality, being replaced by more general terms, on the grounds that the legal text should strive for clarity and objectivity. With this replacement, the inequalities to be addressed were not appointed, disregarding the intention of the democratic process of drawing up the text, which was made through the CONAE.

De ekologiskt betydelsefulla småbiotoperna blir allt färre i det moderna jordbruket på grund av intensifieringen av jordbrukslandskapet som resulterat i ett allt mer fragmenterat landskap. För att kunna ge småbiotoper, såsom åkerholmar, ett optimalt skydd behövs flera studier om organismerna på holmarna, deras diversitet och spridning. I denna undersökning studeras artrikedomen av mossor och lavar på busk- och trädbekädda samt öppna åkerholmar i ett öppet- och ett skogsdominerat landskap. Analysen av artrikedom i studien tyder på att de finns fler arter av mossor och lavar i det öppna landskapet i förhållande till det skogsdominerade landskapet samt på de åkerholmarna som saknade busk- och trädvegetation. Dessa miljöer består av torr och stenig mark och växer igen relativt långsamt, vilket är gynnsamt för vissa mossor och lavar. Det fanns ingen signifikant korrelation mellan diversitet och storleken på åkerholmarna eller mellan diversitet och holmarnas avstånd till skog. Antalet arter i ett habitat kan bero på regionala artpoolen samt antalet potentiella kolonisatörer men även lokala processer. Vidare är det viktigt att nämna att studien tyder på att diversitet av mossor och lavar påverkas av förhållandena på holmarna, såsom busk- och trädtäckningen. Detta i kombination med en variation inom dessa små biotoper kan skapa goda förutsättningar för ett landskap med hög diversitet. / The ecologically important small remnant habitats are becoming fewer in modern agriculture due to the intensification of agricultural landscapes that have resulted in an increasingly fragmented landscape. In order to provide an ideal conservation framework for small habitats, such as midfield islets, several studies about the organisms on the islets, their diversity and distribution are needed. In this study I investigated the diversity of mosses and lichens on open midfield islets with and without shrubs and trees in an open and a forest-dominated landscape. The analysis of species diversity in the study suggests that, overall; there are more species of mosses and lichens in the open landscape in relation to the forest-dominated landscape, and on the opened islets lacking shrub and tree vegetation. These environments consist of dry and rocky soils and overgrow relatively slowly, which is favourable for mosses and lichens. There was no significant correlation between diversity and size of the midfield islets or their distance to forest. The number of species in a habitat may depend on regional species pool and the number of potential colonizers but also local processes. Furthermore, it is important to mention that the study suggests that the diversity of mosses and lichens is influenced by the conditions on the midfield islands, such as shrub and tree cover. These conditions, combined with a variation within these small habitats can create good conditions for a landscape with high diversity.

Surveys of plant and selected insect species was conducted in Highveld and Lowveld agro–ecosystems of four provinces of South Africa, namely North–West, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu–Natal and Limpopo. The objectives of the study were to compare insect and plant diversity between localities (grassland and savanna) and treatments (maize field, semi–transformed and untransformed) to test for a general relationship between plant and insect diversity along a maize field–field margin gradient. Plant and insect diversity patterns were studied along the gradient and quantified in terms of richness and diversity indices. Plant and insect species compositional turnover was also measured along the maize field–field margin gradient. Plant diversity increased with increasing distance from maize fields into the margin. The flora in maize fields and of margins differed, but in contrast, insect species assemblages were similar in maize fields and margins. There was no statistical difference in insect diversity between treatments (maize field, semi–transformed and transformed). A relationship was revealed between plant and insect diversity, as plant diversity enhanced insect diversity. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Surveys of plant and selected insect species was conducted in Highveld and Lowveld agro–ecosystems of four provinces of South Africa, namely North–West, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu–Natal and Limpopo. The objectives of the study were to compare insect and plant diversity between localities (grassland and savanna) and treatments (maize field, semi–transformed and untransformed) to test for a general relationship between plant and insect diversity along a maize field–field margin gradient. Plant and insect diversity patterns were studied along the gradient and quantified in terms of richness and diversity indices. Plant and insect species compositional turnover was also measured along the maize field–field margin gradient. Plant diversity increased with increasing distance from maize fields into the margin. The flora in maize fields and of margins differed, but in contrast, insect species assemblages were similar in maize fields and margins. There was no statistical difference in insect diversity between treatments (maize field, semi–transformed and transformed). A relationship was revealed between plant and insect diversity, as plant diversity enhanced insect diversity. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 1996. / Includes bibliographical references (leaf 82-90).

O objetivo desta tese foi localizar e analisar como o tema da diversidade entra na pauta das políticas educacionais brasileiras e se apresenta nos documentos finais das Conferências Nacionais de Educação de 2010 e 2014, nas novas Diretrizes Curriculares Gerais Nacionais da Educação Básica e no Plano Nacional de Educação 2014-2024, evidenciando os limites, os avanços e as possibilidades para a concretização da política educacional de/para a diversidade efetivamente para todos e todas. Com base no referencial teórico-metodológico materialista histórico dialético, procurou-se evidenciar as condições políticas, econômicas e socioculturais que possibilitaram colocar na pauta da educação brasileira as questões que permeiam a diversidade. Os dados que permitiram responder à questão central desta tese foram encontrados na análise das ações do governo brasileiro referentes ao tema no período de 2002 a 2014, e nos documentos acima referenciados. Também foram analisados alguns dos documentos da Unesco sobre a temática, a fim de entender o que tal instituição chama de políticas de/para a diversidade. Foi verificado que a diversidade, enquanto temática, entra na pauta da educação brasileira devido a dois fatores principais: por meio da influência dos movimentos sociais de cunho identitário e por influência da Unesco. Ao serem analisadas as ações dos dois primeiros mandatos do Partido dos Trabalhadores no governo federal, verificaram-se avanços, através de um novo arranjo institucional que possibilitou a criação de uma série de secretarias especiais para tratar questões referentes ao tema. Dentre elas, destaca-se a Secretaria de Educação Continuada, Alfabetização e Diversidade, com seus inúmeros programas e ações voltadas para as questões que permeiam a temática. Tais secretarias tornaram-diálogo entre os movimentos sociais identitários e o governo. sAeo uman aclaisnaarl does documentos produzidos a partir das duas Conferências Nacionais de Educação (Conae, em 2010 e 2014), verificaram-se avanços na discussão e proposição das políticas que tratam da diversidade. Considerou-se que tal avanço se deu na medida em que as referidas conferências contaram com a participação da sociedade civil organizada, dos movimentos sociais e de profissionais da educação. Verificou-se um retrocesso quando o Plano Nacional da Educação, originado da primeira Conae, foi votado no Congresso Nacional, tendo sido retirada a ênfase na promoção da igualdade racial, regional, de gênero e de orientação sexual, sendo substituídos por termos mais genéricos, sob a alegação de que o texto legal deve primar pela clareza e objetividade. Com essa substituição, deixou-se de nomear as desigualdades a serem combatidas, desconsiderando-se a intenção do processo democrático de elaboração do texto, que se deu através da Conae. / enters the agenda of Brazilian educational policies and is presented in the final documents of the National Conference on Education 2010 and 2014, the new National General Curriculum Guidelines for Basic Education and the National Educational Plan 2014-2024, showing the limits, advances and possibilities for the implementation of the education policy from / to diversity effectively to each and all. Based on the theoretical and methodological framework of Dialectical and Historical Materialism, it was pursued to highlight the political, economic and socio-cultural conditions that made possible to put the diversity issues on the agenda of Brazilian education. The data that allowed answering the central question of this thesis were found in the analysis of the Brazilian government's actions on the topic from 2002 to 2014, and in the above referenced documents. It was also analyzed some of the UNESCO documents on the topic in order to understand what that institution calls policies from / to diversity. It was found that diversity as a theme enters the agenda of Brazilian education due to two main factors: through the influence of the social movements of identity nature and the influence of UNESCO. By analyzing the actions of the first two terms of the Workers Party in the federal government, there have been advances, through a new institutional arrangement that enabled the creation of a number of special departments to address issues related to the topic. rsity, with its numerous programs and actions for the issues that surround the theme. These departments have become a channel for dialogue between identity social movements and the government. By analyzing the documents produced from Conferences on Education (CONAE 2010 and 2014), there have b etheen tawdov aNnacteiosn ianl the discussion and proposal of policies dealing with diversity. It was considered that such advance came in since the conferences had the participation of civil society organizations, social movements and education professionals. There was a regression when the National Education Plan, originated by the first CONAE, was voted in Congress, having been withdrawn the emphasis on promoting racial, regional, gender and sexual orientation equality, being replaced by more general terms, on the grounds that the legal text should strive for clarity and objectivity. With this replacement, the inequalities to be addressed were not appointed, disregarding the intention of the democratic process of drawing up the text, which was made through the CONAE.

O objetivo desta tese foi localizar e analisar como o tema da diversidade entra na pauta das políticas educacionais brasileiras e se apresenta nos documentos finais das Conferências Nacionais de Educação de 2010 e 2014, nas novas Diretrizes Curriculares Gerais Nacionais da Educação Básica e no Plano Nacional de Educação 2014-2024, evidenciando os limites, os avanços e as possibilidades para a concretização da política educacional de/para a diversidade efetivamente para todos e todas. Com base no referencial teórico-metodológico materialista histórico dialético, procurou-se evidenciar as condições políticas, econômicas e socioculturais que possibilitaram colocar na pauta da educação brasileira as questões que permeiam a diversidade. Os dados que permitiram responder à questão central desta tese foram encontrados na análise das ações do governo brasileiro referentes ao tema no período de 2002 a 2014, e nos documentos acima referenciados. Também foram analisados alguns dos documentos da Unesco sobre a temática, a fim de entender o que tal instituição chama de políticas de/para a diversidade. Foi verificado que a diversidade, enquanto temática, entra na pauta da educação brasileira devido a dois fatores principais: por meio da influência dos movimentos sociais de cunho identitário e por influência da Unesco. Ao serem analisadas as ações dos dois primeiros mandatos do Partido dos Trabalhadores no governo federal, verificaram-se avanços, através de um novo arranjo institucional que possibilitou a criação de uma série de secretarias especiais para tratar questões referentes ao tema. Dentre elas, destaca-se a Secretaria de Educação Continuada, Alfabetização e Diversidade, com seus inúmeros programas e ações voltadas para as questões que permeiam a temática. Tais secretarias tornaram-diálogo entre os movimentos sociais identitários e o governo. sAeo uman aclaisnaarl does documentos produzidos a partir das duas Conferências Nacionais de Educação (Conae, em 2010 e 2014), verificaram-se avanços na discussão e proposição das políticas que tratam da diversidade. Considerou-se que tal avanço se deu na medida em que as referidas conferências contaram com a participação da sociedade civil organizada, dos movimentos sociais e de profissionais da educação. Verificou-se um retrocesso quando o Plano Nacional da Educação, originado da primeira Conae, foi votado no Congresso Nacional, tendo sido retirada a ênfase na promoção da igualdade racial, regional, de gênero e de orientação sexual, sendo substituídos por termos mais genéricos, sob a alegação de que o texto legal deve primar pela clareza e objetividade. Com essa substituição, deixou-se de nomear as desigualdades a serem combatidas, desconsiderando-se a intenção do processo democrático de elaboração do texto, que se deu através da Conae. / enters the agenda of Brazilian educational policies and is presented in the final documents of the National Conference on Education 2010 and 2014, the new National General Curriculum Guidelines for Basic Education and the National Educational Plan 2014-2024, showing the limits, advances and possibilities for the implementation of the education policy from / to diversity effectively to each and all. Based on the theoretical and methodological framework of Dialectical and Historical Materialism, it was pursued to highlight the political, economic and socio-cultural conditions that made possible to put the diversity issues on the agenda of Brazilian education. The data that allowed answering the central question of this thesis were found in the analysis of the Brazilian government's actions on the topic from 2002 to 2014, and in the above referenced documents. It was also analyzed some of the UNESCO documents on the topic in order to understand what that institution calls policies from / to diversity. It was found that diversity as a theme enters the agenda of Brazilian education due to two main factors: through the influence of the social movements of identity nature and the influence of UNESCO. By analyzing the actions of the first two terms of the Workers Party in the federal government, there have been advances, through a new institutional arrangement that enabled the creation of a number of special departments to address issues related to the topic. rsity, with its numerous programs and actions for the issues that surround the theme. These departments have become a channel for dialogue between identity social movements and the government. By analyzing the documents produced from Conferences on Education (CONAE 2010 and 2014), there have b etheen tawdov aNnacteiosn ianl the discussion and proposal of policies dealing with diversity. It was considered that such advance came in since the conferences had the participation of civil society organizations, social movements and education professionals. There was a regression when the National Education Plan, originated by the first CONAE, was voted in Congress, having been withdrawn the emphasis on promoting racial, regional, gender and sexual orientation equality, being replaced by more general terms, on the grounds that the legal text should strive for clarity and objectivity. With this replacement, the inequalities to be addressed were not appointed, disregarding the intention of the democratic process of drawing up the text, which was made through the CONAE.