Les antidépresseurs ont un effet antiallodynique qui dépend de la stimulation des récepteurs β2-adrénergiques. Ceux-ci stimulent la production d’adénosine monophosphate cyclique (AMPc) régulé par les phosphodiestérases de type 4 (PDE4). Nous avons ici étudié l’effet d’inhibiteurs de PDE (iPDE) sur la douleur neuropathique, grâce à des approches de pharmacologie comportementale chez la souris complétées par de l’imagerie calcium et des approches moléculaires. Nos résultats montrent un effet antiallodynique des iPDE4 et des iPDE5. L’action des iPDE4 est liée à une diminution d’expression du TNFα dans le ganglion rachidien et au recrutement des récepteurs delta des opioïdes. Celle des iPDE5 nécessite à la fois les récepteurs mu et delta. Nous montrons aussi que l’action d’un iPDE4 dépend de la dose, l’activation de cellules gliales semblant corrélée à l’effet antiallodynique à faible dose, alors que celle des neurones à forte dose a un effet pronociceptif via les récepteurs TRPV1. / Antidepressants have an antiallodynic action that is dependent on β2-adrenoceptor stimulation. These receptors stimulate the cAMP production, which is regulated by type 4 phosphodiesterases (PDE4). Here, we studied that action of PDE inhibitors (iPDE) on neuropathic pain, using behavioral pharmacology approaches in mice, completed by calcium imaging and molecular approaches. Our results show the iPDE4s and iPDE5s have an antiallodynic action. The iPDE4s act through a decreased expression of TNFα in dorsal root ganglia and the recruitment of the delta opioid receptors. The action of iPDE5 requires both mu and delta opioid receptors. We also show that the action of an iPDE4 depends on the dose, the activation of glial cells at low dose being correlated with an antiallodynic action, while the recruitment of neurons at higher doses has a pronociceptive action via TRPV1 receptors.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Increased electrical activity in peripheral sensory neurons contributes to pain. A unique type of sodium current, fast resurgent current, is proposed to increase nerve activity and has been associated with pain pathologies. While sodium channel isoform Nav1.6 has been identified as the main carrier of fast resurgent currents, our understanding of how resurgent currents are modulated in sensory neurons is fairly limited. Thus the goal of this dissertation was to identify resurgent current modulators. In particular, we focused on sodium channel beta subunits (Navβs) and fibroblast growth factor homologous factors (FHFs) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. We hypothesized that Navβ4 and FHF2B act as positive regulators by mediating resurgent currents and modulating Nav1.6 inactivation, respectively. In contrast, we hypothesized FHF2A negatively regulates resurgent current by increasing the probability of channels in inactivated states. Thus, the aims of this dissertation were to 1) determine if Navβ4 regulates fast resurgent currents in DRG neurons, 2) examine the effects of Navβ4 knockdown on resurgent currents, firing frequency and pain associated behavior in an inflammatory pain model and 3) determine if FHF2A and FHF2B functionally regulate Nav1.6 currents, including resurgent currents in DRG neurons. To examine the aims, we used biochemical, electrophysiological and behavioral assays. Our results suggest that Navβ4 is a positive regulator of resurgent currents: in particular, the C-terminus likely mediates these currents. Localized knockdown of Navβ4 decreased inflammation-induced enhancement of resurgent currents and neuronal excitability, and prevented the development of persistent pain associated behavior in an inflammatory pain model. FHF2B increased resurgent currents and delayed inactivation. In contrast, FHF2A limited resurgent currents; an effect that is mainly contributed by FHF2A's N-terminus activity that increased accumulation of channels in inactivated states. Interestingly, in an inflammatory pain model FHF2B was upregulated and FHFA isoforms were downregulated. Together these results suggest that FHF2A/B modulation might contribute to enhanced resurgent currents and increased neuronal excitability observed in the inflammatory pain model. Overall, our work has identified three resurgent current modulators FHF2A, FHF2B and Navβ4. Manipulation of these proteins or their activity might result in novel strategies for the study and treatment of pain.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / ABSTRACT Yue Wang Neurofibromin, nerve growth factor and Ras: their roles in controlling the excitability of mouse sensory neurons Neurofibromin, the product of the Nf1 gene, is a guanosine triphosphatase activating protein (GAP) for p21ras (Ras) that accelerates the conversion of active Ras-GTP to inactive Ras-GDP. It is likely that sensory neurons with reduced levels of neurofibromin have augmented Ras-GTP activity. In a mouse model with a heterozygous mutation of the Nf1 gene (Nf1+/-), the patch-clamp recording technique is used to investigate the role of neurofibromin in controlling the state of neuronal excitability. Sensory neurons isolated from adult Nf1+/- mice generate more APs in response to a ramp of depolarizing current compared to Nf1+/+ mice. In order to elucidate whether the activation of Ras underlies this augmented excitability, sensory neurons are exposed to nerve growth factor (NGF) that activates Ras. In Nf1+/+ neurons, exposure to NGF increases the production of APs. To examine whether activation of Ras contributes to the NGF-induced sensitization in Nf1+/+ neurons, an antibody that neutralizes Ras activity is internally perfused into neurons. The NGF-mediated augmentation of excitability is suppressed by the Ras-blocking antibody in Nf1+/+ neurons, suggesting the NGF-induced sensitization in Nf1+/+ neurons depends on the activation of Ras. Surprisingly, the excitability of Nf1+/- neurons is not altered by the blocking antibody, suggesting that this enhanced excitability may depend on previous activation of downstream effectors of Ras. To determine the mechanism giving rise to augmented excitability of Nf1+/- neurons, isolated membrane currents are examined. Consistent with the enhanced excitability of Nf1+/- neurons, the peak current density of tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) and TTX-sensitive (TTX-S) sodium currents (INa) are significantly larger than in Nf1+/+ neurons. Although the voltage for half-maximal activation (V0.5) is not different, there is a significant depolarizing shift in the V0.5 for steady-state inactivation of INa in Nf1+/- neurons. In summary, these results demonstrate that the enhanced production of APs in Nf1+/- neurons results from a larger current amplitude and a depolarized voltage dependence of steady-state inactivation of INa that leads to more sodium channels being available for the subsequent firing of APs. My investigation supports the idea that regulation of channels by the Ras cascade is an important determinant of neuronal excitability. Grant D. Nicol, Ph.D, Chair

La douleur est perçue par des neurones spécialisés, les nocicepteurs, dont le corps cellulaire est localisé, au niveau du tronc, dans les ganglions de la racine dorsale (DRG). Ces neurones détectent les informations sensorielles en périphérie (peau, muscles ou viscères) et les transmettent aux neurones spinaux qu'ils connectent au niveau de la corne dorsale de la moelle épinière. D'un point de vue morphologique, anatomique, physiologique, mais également moléculaire, une hétérogénéité importante de ces neurones est observée. Le but principal du laboratoire est de trouver de nouvelles molécules impliquées dans les mécanismes moléculaires qui spécifient les différentes sous-populations neuronales des DRG. Dans ce cadre, il a été possible d'identifier et valider plusieurs gènes présentant un profil d'expression très particulier et spécifiant des populations neuronales bien distinctes au sein des DRG. Parmi ces gènes, tafa4 est principalement exprimé dans des neurones non-peptidergiques de type C. Tafa4 est une petite protéine sécrétée proche des chemokines de type CC dont la fonction est jusqu'à présent inconnue, et dont l'expression dans les DRG n'a encore jamais été décrite. Au cours de ce travail, j'ai pu identifier Tafa4 comme un nouveau marqueur d'une sous-population de neurones sensoriels des DRG : les C-LTMRs (C-Low Threshold MechanoReceptor). La génération d'une lignée de souris Tafa4 KO dans laquelle le gène tafa4 a été remplacé par la protéine fluorescente Vénus, nous a permis de mettre en évidence que la population de neurones tafa4+ projette en central dans la lamina II interne de la moelle épinière et en périphérique exclusivement au niveau de la peau poilue. / The perception of pain is initiated by the detection of noxious stimuli by the peripheral endings of primary nociceptive neurons. They are a specialized group of small-diameter pseudounipolar neurons with cell bodies in the dorsal roots ganglia (DRG). They give rise to thinly myelinated (Ad-fibers) or unmyelinated (C-fibers) afferent fibers, which convey the signal from the periphery to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Our laboratory is interested in molecular mechanisms which underlie the specification of somatic sensory neurons and their properties. In order to find novel molecular factors involved in this process, we identified several new nociceptor subtype specific genes by microarray experiments. Among these genes, tafa4 which encodes a small secreted protein distantly related to CC chemokine with unknown function, appears to have a DRG-specific expression from early developmental stages and becomes restricted to a subset of C-fibers non-peptidergic nociceptors in adult DRG. By using transgenic mice, we show that Tafa4 neurons specifically project to the dorsal horn lamina IIi and innervate the hairy skin. They have electrophysiological signature of C-Low-threshold mechanoreceptors (C-LTMRs), a population of sensory neurons implicated in the injury-induced mechanical hyper-sensitivity as well as in the affective component of touch. Mutant mice lacking Tafa4 do not present developmental defects and specify Tafa4 population correctly. However, despite no obvious molecular changes in Tafa4 mutants, these mice display significant increase in tissue injury induced hyper-sensitivity which could be reduced by intrathecally applied Tafa4 protein.

Des cellules souches dérivées des crêtes neurales ont été trouvées dans divers tissus adultes comme le ganglion de la racine dorsale (GRD). Ce projet de thèse vise à identifier et caractériser la cellule souche de ce tissu. Premièrement, nous avons étudié le potentiel souche de l’ensemble des cellules du GRD. In vitro, certaines sont capables de proliférer pour former des sphères multipotentes qui génèrent des neurones, des glies et des myofibroblastes. In vivo, selon le contexte dans lequel les cellules issues des sphères sont transplantées, elles génèreront différent types cellulaires. Dans le funiculus dorsal démyélinisé de la souris Nude, elles se différencient en cellule de Schwann alors que dans un cerveau de souris nouveau-né Shiverer, elles produisent des péricytes qui s’intègrent aux capillaires sanguins. Bien que le GRD possède une population cellulaire au potentiel souche, son identité et son rôle restent à découvrir. Afin d’identifier cette cellule, nous avons combiné plusieurs techniques et souris transgéniques pour éliminer les diverses cellules candidates. Nous avons découvert plusieurs cellules avec une plasticité intéressante. Deux progéniteurs unipotents ayant la morphologie et la signature moléculaire de péricyte et de fibroblaste de l’endonèvre ont été trouvés dans le nerf sciatique et le GRD adulte. Enfin la cellule souche du GRD correspond de par sa morphologie à une cellule satellite (SGC). Elle prolifère et est bi-potente in vitro. Elle génère, in vivo, des SGC mais également des neurones en condition pathologique. Mieux comprendre ses mécanismes de régulations pourrait ouvrir la voie à de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour les maladies du SNP. / Neural crest-derived stem cells have been identified in various adult tissues including the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). This thesis project aims to identify and characterize the putative adult DRG stem cell. First, we studied the stemness potential of global DRG cell populations. In vitro, within the adult DRG, some cells were able to form multipotent spheres that gave rise to neurons, glia and myofibroblasts. The graft of the DRG cell forming spheres proved their differentiation plasticity in vivo. Depending upon their graft environment; they generate different cell types. In the demyelinating dorsal funiculus of adult Nude mice, they formed myelinating Schwann cells while in the brain of new born Shiverer mice, they produced pericytes integrated within capillaries. Although, the DRG cells seemed to have an interesting stemness potential, their identity and their physiopathological role remain unknown. In order to characterize this stem cell and study its fate within the DRG, we combined several technics with transgenic mouse lines to exclude the diverse DRG candidate cells. We discovered different cells with interesting plasticity. Two types of unipotent progenitors that have the morphology and molecular characteristics of pericyte and endoneurial fibroblast in the adult sciatic nerve and DRG. But most of all, we found that the DRG stem cell has the phenotype of the satellite glial cell (SGC). They proliferate and are bipotente in vitro. In vivo these stem cells generate SGC under normal condition and produce glia more neurons when necessary in pathological condition. Understanding these regulation mechanisms could open the way to new therapeutic strategies for PNS diseases.

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Transcription factors of the helix-loop-helix (HLH) gene family are widespread in the animal kingdom. Among them, members of HLH subfamilies such as ASCL, Neurogenin, NeuroD, COE, Atonal, Oligo, NSCL, Hairy/E(spl) and Hey (here referred to as neural HLH genes) have been shown to be fundamental for the development of the nervous system. They are expressed at different time periods of neuronal differentiation, from the specification of ectoderm towards a neural lineage, to the ultimate differentiation of neurons. Few HLH genes have been identified in the lamprey; however, considering the wide diversity of HLH gene subfamilies in metazoans, including vertebrates, it is very likely that lampreys possess a large repertoire of HLH genes in their genome. In the present study, the identification of several HLH genes in the lamprey genome, as well as the isolation and expression of different lamprey neural HLH genes is reported. As expected, a wide repertoire of HLH genes was identified in the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) genome. On the other hand, the identification and expression analysis of different neural HLH genes of the ASCL, Neurogenin, COE and Hairy/E(spl) in the brook lamprey Lampetra planeri showed an overall conservation with other vertebrates, both at the sequence and expression pattern levels. In addition, novel features of the lamprey nervous system are revealed, such as the identification of possible new sensory cranial placodes in pharyngeal arches. Furthermore, these genes can serve as molecular markers for different cranial placodes and dorsal root ganglia (DRG), and their expression also highlights the presence of a ventricular zone in the brain and spinal cord, along with a complementary marginal zone. Finally, with the use of a Notch pathway inhibitor in developing L. planeri embryos, the regulation of expression of the isolated genes by the Notch signaling pathway was shown to be generally conserved between lampreys and gnathostomes in the spinal cord. This functional study also revealed that the lamprey spinal cord likely presents an independent developmental programme from the brain. All together, the present study shows that the analysis of neural HLH genes represents an excellent tool to understand the lamprey nervous system.

La douleur neuropathique est due à une lésion ou une pathologie du système nerveux somatosensoriel. La prégabaline, un anticonvulsivant, et la duloxétine, un antidépresseur, sont des traitements de référence, efficaces chez un tiers des patients. Mieux comprendre leurs mécanismes d’action est crucial pour améliorer leur tolérance et leur efficacité. En utilisant un modèle murin de douleur neuropathique périphérique, nous montrons que : 1) la prégabaline, dont l’action est indépendante du système opioïdergique, agit sur la composante neuroimmunitaire périphérique de la douleur ; 2) la duloxétine agit via deux mécanismes indépendants, l’un central (contrôles descendants) pour un traitement aigu et l’autre périphérique (ganglion rachidien) pour un traitement chronique. Dans ce cas, l’analyse transcriptomique met en évidence une inhibition de l’inflammation neurogène. La comparaison des taux plasmatiques de duloxétine chez l’homme et chez la souris suggère une action périphérique chez l’homme. / Neuropathic pain is caused by a lesion or a disease of the somatosensory nervous system. Pregabalin, an anticonvulsant, and duloxetine, an antidepressant, are the standard treatments, effective in one-third of patients. A better understanding of their mechanisms of action is a crucial point to improve their tolerance and efficiency. By using a murine model of peripheral neuropathy, we have shown that : 1) pregabalin, whose effect is independent from the opioid system, acts on the peripheral neuroimmune component of pain ; 2) duloxetine acts via two independent mechanisms, one central (descending controls) for an acute treatment and the other peripheral (dorsal root ganglia) for a chronic treatment. In this case, transcriptomic analysis hightlights an inhibition of the neurogenic inflammation. Comparison of duloxetine plasmatic levels in humans and mice suggests a peripheral action in humans.