Embryonic chromatin diminution, the selective excision of large amounts of heterochromatic DNA from presomatic cell lineages, provides an example of an unusually large augmentation of the germline genome and raises questions regarding the source of the increased amount of DNA and its relevance to the biology of the organism. DNA levels in adult germ cell nuclei of the copepod Cyclops kolensis were determined by DNA-Feulgen cytophotometry and compared with those of somatic nuclei of adults and both pre- and postdiminuted embryos from the same mothers. Almost 75 pg DNA/nucleus is excised by diminution, resulting in the return of each generation to the approximately 1 pg DNA/nucleus level found for adult soma. To account for the increase in DNA levels of germ cells observed here, we propose alternative hypotheses to the original model of chromatin diminution: (1) repetitive endocycles or (2) proliferation of genetic elements. Specific tests for these hypotheses using next-generation sequencing and quantitative cytophotometry, as well as the functional significance of germ cell DNA augmentation to the copepod, are discussed.

Purpose: Ultrasonically measured intravesical prostatic protrusion may be a promising noninvasive method of assessing bladder outlet obstruction. Previous investigations of this technique focused on patients with acute urinary retention and symptomatic men identified in urology clinics, which may not reflect the distribution of intravesical prostatic protrusion in community dwelling men. Materials and Methods: In 2006 a total of 322 white men residing in Olmsted County, Minnesota underwent transrectal ultrasound examination which permitted direct measurement of intravesical prostatic protrusion. Cross-sectional associations between lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic enlargement and intravesical prostatic protrusion were measured. Rapid increases in lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic enlargement measures as predictors of severe intravesical prostatic protrusion were also assessed. Results: Overall 10% of these men had an intravesical prostatic protrusion of 10 mm or greater. Greater intravesical prostatic protrusion was weakly correlated with greater prostate volume (rs = 0.28), higher obstructive symptoms (rs = 0.18) and lower peak urinary flow rate (rs = -0.18). Men with the most rapidly growing prostate before intravesical prostatic protrusion measurement were 3 times more likely to have an intravesical prostatic protrusion of 10 mm or greater. Men with an intravesical prostatic protrusion of 10 mm or greater were more likely to use medications for lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic enlargement compared to those with an intravesical prostatic protrusion less than 10 mm (adjusted OR 2.95, 95% CI 1.23-7.06). Conclusions: These population based data provide reference ranges for future studies of intravesical prostatic protrusion as a predictor of adverse urological outcomes. Intravesical prostatic protrusion is significantly correlated with greater prostate volume, higher obstructive symptoms and lower peak urinary flow rate, suggesting that it may have clinical usefulness in predicting the need for treatment.

Several large-sample confidence intervals for the ratio of independent binomial proportions are compared in terms of exact coverage probability and width. A non-iterative approximate Bayesian interval is derived and its frequency properties are superior to all of the non-iterative confidence intervals considered. The approximate Bayesian interval, which is very easy to compute, has performance characteristics that are very similar to the computationally intensive score method. Two sample size determination formulas are presented, one for desired absolute precision and the other for desired relative precision.

The unique chromosome biology of the fungus fly Sciara coprophila has fascinated investigators for over 80 years. Male meiosis exhibits a monopolar spindle, nonrandom segregation of imprinted chromosomes and nondisjunction of the X chromosome. The unusual mechanism of sex determination requires selective elimination of X chromosomes in embryogenesis. Super-numerary (L) chromosomes are also eliminated from the soma during early cleavage divisions. Distinctive DNA puffs on the larval salivary gland chromosomes are sites of DNA amplification. As a foundation for future genome studies to explore these many unusual phenomena, we have used DNA-Feulgen cytophotometry to determine genome size from hemocyte nuclei of male (X0) and female (XX) larvae and adults. The DNA content of the X chromosome is ∼0.05 pg DNA and the autosomal complement is ∼0.45 pg DNA. Measurements of DNA levels for individual sperm from adults showed that the DNA contribution of the germ line-limited (L) chromosomes constitutes as much as 35% of the DNA of the male gamete. A parallel study using Sciara ocellaris, a related species lacking L chromosomes, confirmed the presence of two X chromosomes in the sperm of this species.

E-commerce offers business organisations significant operational and strategic opportunities. However, the implementation of effective e-commerce-based business models is not without serious organisational technological challenges. Some of these challenges tend to hinder the implementation of e-commerce in small to medium-sized organisations. The objective of this research is to shed some light on these challenges. Based on the results of this study, some lessons learned and their practical implications are underscored.

Nearly every modern Olympic Games has brought astonished comments and criticism of the body sizes of female gymnasts. The comments from laypersons, scientists, journalists, and physicians too often imply that these diminutive athletes are unusually small and possibly unhealthy. Purpose: An extended and updated analysis of the sizes of U.S. female Olympic gymnasts including the 2012 and 2016 Olympic Games. Methods: Official public records from the US Olympic Committee and USA Gymnastics of Olympic team members were assessed including height, mass, age, body-mass index (BMI) and team performance rankings. Sixteen Olympic teams with a total of 123 team positions including the alternates were assessed. Trend analyses were conducted using linear and polynomial models. Results: Analyses indicated that since 1956, height, mass, age, and BMI declined at first and then increased, with the exceptions of height and rank. Best regression fits were obtained via 2nd order polynomial equations. Height and rank showed a downward trend throughout the historical period. Conclusion: Female Olympic gymnasts were getting smaller through approximately the 1980s and early 1990s. An upward trend in size variables was then observed through 2008. The addition of the 2012 and 2016 Olympic Games data showed that height shifted to a decline from a slight upward trend, and rank continued to decline throughout the historical period.

Soil seed banks are important to the maintenance and restoration of floras. Extant seed banks exhibit unique characteristics with regard to the distribution of seed size and seed density. Seeds were recovered from the Upper Pennsylvanian Wise Formation in southwest Virginia. Structurally preserved seeds were also examined from coal balls of the Pennsylvanian Pottsville and Allegheny Groups, Ohio. The size distribution of the seeds from the Wise Formation is similar to that of structurally preserved seeds of the Upper Pennsylvanian Pottsville and Allegheny Group coal balls. In contrast, the seed size distributions in extant wetland, grassland, woodland and forest habitats are significantly narrower than that of seeds from the Pennsylvanian seed banks. Larger seeds are less dependent on light for germination, and aid in seedling establishment more than smaller seeds, especially in dense stable forests where disturbance events are rare. Large seed size may contribute to increased seed longevity, which reduces the effect of environmental variability on seed germination and development. The significantly larger size of the Palaeozoic seeds may have imparted an advantage for seedling establishment in the dense Palaeozoic forests. The preponderance of large seeds may be a result of the absence of large seed predators (e.g. herbivorous tetrapods), and may have been an evolutionary strategy to minimize damage to the embryo from a predator population dominated by small invertebrates with chewing or sucking mouthparts. The estimated seed density of 192 seeds/m2 in the Palaeozoic seed bank falls within the range of modern seed banks, but at the lower end of modern seed bank densities in a variety of habitats.

The notion that exists in society is that it is the politicians who decide while the public officials stand for facts within the policy process, and that they are active at various stages in the process. In practice, however, it looks different and the public officials have more influence than the theory predicts. The purpose of this essay is to investigate the influence of public officials in the policy process by studing whether the influence differs depending on the size of the municipality. We will also study the stage in which public officials have the most influence over the policy process in the different municipalities. To be able to conduct this study, the following questions have been posed: "How much influence do public officials have in the policy process in a small municipality and a large municipality?" and "which step in the policy process does public officials have the most influence, in a small and large municipality in Sweden?" As an empirical material, a survey was conducted in which the respondents were public officials in a small and a large municipality and public officials in a large municipality. We find that public officials in the small municipality have a greater opportunity for influence than public officials in the larger municipality. The public officials in the larger municipality have the most influence in the policy formulation stage in the policy process, while the public officials in the small municipality have the most influence in the problem identification stage.

Includes bibliographical references / This paper investigates the impact of firm size and industry on the capital structure of listed South African firms. It uses data obtained from firms listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange and tests trade-off theory and pecking order theory for firms of various sizes, firms in different industries and also tests for differences between debt maturities. Multiple fixed effect models are used to firstly test for the main factors that impact capital structure and secondly to test which sources of capital are preferred to finance a change in assets. The analysis shows that firms of different sizes and firms that operate in different industries choose their capital structure in various ways. Larger firms are more highly geared debt more than small firms and smaller firms prefer to use internally generated funds. The two main capital structure theories, trade-off and pecking order, do not explain the difference in behaviour adequately. The paper also finds that similar factors impact both long-term and short-term debt.

An important source of freshwater in arid lands is found in groundwater aquifers that are recharged after storm events. However, most of the precipitation is lost due to evaporation and only small fractions actually recharge the aquifers. The construction of dams along wadi channels enables the retention of stormwater, however the reservoirs are still subject to huge evaporative losses and contamination. In this study, the hydraulic properties of a dunefield in western Saudi Arabia are evaluated in order to determine the feasibility of designing a stormwater storage aquifer storage and recovery facility using the dune sands as a natural medium and design recommendations are addressed. The accurate estimation of hydraulic conductivity of unlithified sediments such as dune sands has become very important in the design of natural filtration projects, including aquifer recharge and recovery systems. Therefore, a comparison and selection of methods for the determination of the hydraulic conductivity from grain size distribution found in the literature was done. An improvement to these equations based on measurements on dune samples was obtained.