The relationships among the balance of payments and other macroeconomic variables in the Korean economy for the period 1961-85 are analyzed in this study. Theoretical studies on the effects of government policies on the economy and the balance of payments were conducted under both the Keynesian and monetary approaches. The Keynesian approach concentrates on the commodity and capital market adjustment factors and does not focus on the money market factors, whereas the monetary approach considers the balance of payments adjustments as a symptom of money market disequilibrium alone. The basic assumptions of those two approaches, taken seperately, are not fully relevant to the Korean economy, which has unemployed resources, a high proportion of non-traded goods to traded goods, and monetary effects of balance of payments changes. Therefore, a model combining monetary and real factors to explain the short-run behavior of Korea's balance of payments in a single framework is developed. The empirical results of the combined model show that its explanatory power is much higher than either of the two models taken separately. For balance of payments adjustment policy in Korea during the period 1961-85, fiscal and foreign exchange rate policy instruments were found to be very effective in the short-run, but monetary policy instruments were not.

Researchers have consistently shown that a firms repurchase announcement is met with positive abnormal stock price return reactions. Open-market repurchases are extremely flexible, non-committal and non-punitive; thus, it is puzzling that the mere announcement of an open-market repurchase will likely increase a firms stock price. I propose to disentangle a firms choice to repurchase its stock to determine when a repurchase announcement is good news for shareholders and when the announcement is not. I find that the purpose of the repurchase announcement matters. At the announcement date, managers intention of avoiding dilution is significantly negative and enhancing shareholder value is significantly positive, as expected. However, more interesting results are observed at two-years and three-years post announcement where I show that counteracting dilution is not a good reason to conduct a repurchase and, although not as strongly negative, enhancing shareholder value does not bear out its announcement promise. Furthermore, I find that firms that repurchase their shares to finance an acquisition are well compensated for their efforts, especially in the long run. I attribute their success to higher cash flows resulting from reducing their tax burden with their amortization deduction of the goodwill created from the purchase accounting acquisition.

本文的研究重點主要是針對金融面，即在尋找一套較可靠的數據將兩岸區域性國際收支表編成季資料的形式，在此資料編成後，將進一步分析台商投資大陸，資金流失對於匯率的影響效果。 　　本論文以林鐘雄先生等人(1993)與葉玟琪(1993)之研究方法，應用其對台商到大陸投資之直接投資金額與短期資金流動項的估計方法，利用香港政府公布的統計資料編出季資料之兩岸區域性國際收支表之資本帳項目。至於經常帳中的商品貿易項、旅行支出項與移轉性支付項，除了兩岸的商品貿易項可由香港政府海關統計中的轉出口貿易項中得出外，其他項目仍然必須引用上述兩篇文獻中的估計方法，得出季資料之經常帳數額。利用以上數據編成季資料之兩岸區域性國際收支表。 　　由於兩岸商品貿易必須經過海關的程序，央行可充分掌握並反映於政府公佈的商品貿易項之中。而旅行支出、其他勞務、移轉性支付等，可透過結匯的程序，同時反應於國際收支表上，但是數額龐大之投資資金的流向，則是政府無法充分掌握的部分，此資金的外流造成台幣大量流失，因此必須推估出政府低估的金額。以此低估部份對本國貨幣供給作調整，以探討其對於匯率的影響效果。 　　由兩岸區域性國際收支表，得出1983年第1季至1993年第4季為止，台商在大陸的累積投資為198.19億美元，比較投審會公佈的數據36.04億美元，得出政府低估之台商至大陸投資的金額為162.15億美元，因為此投資資金的流失將導致準備貨幣減少756.44億台幣，使台幣產生的貶值效果。並由各季台商對大陸的投資金額，預估未來兩年台商將對大陸投資117.82億美元，且此資金的流失也將使得台幣貶值。

<p>A majority of the payments that are carried out today are executed through the electronic payment systems. Payments that are executed through these systems are administrated by payment service providers, these providers are, in general, banks. In spite of the socio-economic importance of payments and payment intermediation, there is an uncertainty regarding the legal status of payments and payment intermediation. Some describe payment intermediation as transport of means of payments, while some describe it in terms of claims and intermediation of information. There is, in other words, a need for clarification. </p><p>Since the international trade is increasing, more and more payments are made to receivers abroad. The trade with Germany is very important for Sweden. </p><p>Therefore, it can be an advantage for Swedish tradesmen, who are involved in businesses with German tradesmen, to know of the differences between Swedish and German law, when it comes to payments and payment intermediation. Also, in international trade, situations can occur that generally do not occur in domestic trade. EC-law must as well be taken into consideration, when discussing international payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have in the thesis described the German legal system, in general features, and I have also made a brief outline of the Swedish international private law regulations that can be applied to a payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have furthermore given a brief description of the relevant EC- regulations and -directives, in order to see to what extent a harmonization has been made, regarding payments and payment intermediation. </p><p>One of my conclusions, after having studied Swedish, German and international law, is that when the sender of a payment wants to execute a payment through the payment systems, he gives the sending bank a commission to transfer a certain amount to the receiver. In return, the sender denounces claims towards the bank, equivalent to that amount. The sending bank then gives the receiving bank a commission to credit the receiver’s account. In return, the receiving bank obtains compensation from the sending bank. The commission is final when the correct account has been credited with the correct amount at the correct time by the correct sender. I have further come to the conclusion that the receiver’s claim towards the receiving bank arises already when the receiving bank acquires the commission from the sending bank, and not when the receiver’s account is being credited. </p><p>I have thoroughly studied payments and payment intermediation according to both Swedish and German law, in order to see whether there are any differences between the legal systems. I have concluded, that there is a major difference in determining at what point of time a payment has been made, and therefore also whether the sender is in delay with the payment or not. According to Swedish law, the point of time when the receiver’s account is being credited is decisive. According to German law, at first hand, the point of time when the sender gives the commission to the sending bank is decisive. Another important difference is which legal relations the participators have with each other. In Swedish law, this matter has not been closely discussed, while in German law, in harmony with EC-law, the matter has been thoroughly analysed. The legal relations, concerning a payment intermediation, are to be regarded separately. This implies that the sender does not have legal relations with any other participant in the payment intermediation, for instance the receiving bank. I find that this model also is applicable to Swedish conditions.</p>

<p>Internationally most Internet trade related payments are performed with the use of a credit card based payment system on the Internet. Payment against invoice is still most common when trading over the Internet in Sweden. The security development, comfort and timesaving indicate that credit card based payment systems on the Internet soon will have a breakthrough in Sweden as well. The Swedish legislation concerning payment is neither especially extensive nor suited to electronic payments but to payments performed with notes and coins. When the legal effects, of a payment performed with a credit card based payment system on the Internet, set in is not fixed. My objective with this essay is to analyse when the legal act payment should be considered to have been realized, when the payment is performed with the use of a credit card based payment system on the Internet</p>

This study investigates the settlement period, including payment delays and failed deliveries that occur during the processing of U.S. equity transactions, and its effects on observed stock prices. Payment and delivery occur three to six calendar days after the trade date in the standard three business day settlement cycle, referred to as T+3. First, the buyer benefits from a payment delay, during which time he can earn interest on the cash needed to settle the trade. Since the seller has no analogous opportunity, I anticipated that the cost of the payment delay would be reflected in equity prices at a rate equivalent to the risk-free rate over the settlement period in ordinary circumstances and at a higher rate during financial market crises if sellers believe they may not be paid on time. Using CRSP daily market index returns from 1995 through 2009, I measured the cost of this delay to be approximately three to five times the risk-free rate, proxied by the effective Fed funds rate. These results suggest that buyers are forced to compensate sellers at rates greater than I expected during normal conditions. Second, the risk of failed delivery may also affect security prices if market participants expect that sellers will not deliver securities on time. A failed delivery effectively becomes a forward transaction. I predicted that buyers compensate sellers at the risk-free rate over the extended settlement period. This compensation would be in addition to the normal payment delay and directly related to the probability of failed delivery; thus, I added SEC Regulation SHO daily failed deliveries data, available from 2004 through 2009, to the model with payment delays. By constructing a proxy for the change in probability of failure from aggregated fails and market volume, I found that buyers compensate sellers over the lengthened settlement period due to failed deliveries at a rate of approximately 11 basis points daily for an increase in the likelihood of failure of one percentage point.

A majority of the payments that are carried out today are executed through the electronic payment systems. Payments that are executed through these systems are administrated by payment service providers, these providers are, in general, banks. In spite of the socio-economic importance of payments and payment intermediation, there is an uncertainty regarding the legal status of payments and payment intermediation. Some describe payment intermediation as transport of means of payments, while some describe it in terms of claims and intermediation of information. There is, in other words, a need for clarification. Since the international trade is increasing, more and more payments are made to receivers abroad. The trade with Germany is very important for Sweden. Therefore, it can be an advantage for Swedish tradesmen, who are involved in businesses with German tradesmen, to know of the differences between Swedish and German law, when it comes to payments and payment intermediation. Also, in international trade, situations can occur that generally do not occur in domestic trade. EC-law must as well be taken into consideration, when discussing international payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have in the thesis described the German legal system, in general features, and I have also made a brief outline of the Swedish international private law regulations that can be applied to a payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have furthermore given a brief description of the relevant EC- regulations and -directives, in order to see to what extent a harmonization has been made, regarding payments and payment intermediation. One of my conclusions, after having studied Swedish, German and international law, is that when the sender of a payment wants to execute a payment through the payment systems, he gives the sending bank a commission to transfer a certain amount to the receiver. In return, the sender denounces claims towards the bank, equivalent to that amount. The sending bank then gives the receiving bank a commission to credit the receiver’s account. In return, the receiving bank obtains compensation from the sending bank. The commission is final when the correct account has been credited with the correct amount at the correct time by the correct sender. I have further come to the conclusion that the receiver’s claim towards the receiving bank arises already when the receiving bank acquires the commission from the sending bank, and not when the receiver’s account is being credited. I have thoroughly studied payments and payment intermediation according to both Swedish and German law, in order to see whether there are any differences between the legal systems. I have concluded, that there is a major difference in determining at what point of time a payment has been made, and therefore also whether the sender is in delay with the payment or not. According to Swedish law, the point of time when the receiver’s account is being credited is decisive. According to German law, at first hand, the point of time when the sender gives the commission to the sending bank is decisive. Another important difference is which legal relations the participators have with each other. In Swedish law, this matter has not been closely discussed, while in German law, in harmony with EC-law, the matter has been thoroughly analysed. The legal relations, concerning a payment intermediation, are to be regarded separately. This implies that the sender does not have legal relations with any other participant in the payment intermediation, for instance the receiving bank. I find that this model also is applicable to Swedish conditions.

Internationally most Internet trade related payments are performed with the use of a credit card based payment system on the Internet. Payment against invoice is still most common when trading over the Internet in Sweden. The security development, comfort and timesaving indicate that credit card based payment systems on the Internet soon will have a breakthrough in Sweden as well. The Swedish legislation concerning payment is neither especially extensive nor suited to electronic payments but to payments performed with notes and coins. When the legal effects, of a payment performed with a credit card based payment system on the Internet, set in is not fixed. My objective with this essay is to analyse when the legal act payment should be considered to have been realized, when the payment is performed with the use of a credit card based payment system on the Internet

The focus of this study is the vicious circle of poverty and ill-health. The case is injuries but it could have been any lasting and severe disease. Poverty and health have very close links to economic development and to how health care is financed. Out-of-pocket payment seems to increase the risk of poverty while prepaid health care reduces it. The overall objective is to investigate the “injury poverty trap” and suggest possible solutions for it. A cohort of 23,807 people living in 5,801 households in Bavi district of Vietnam was followed from 1999 to 2003 to investigate income losses caused by non-fatal unintentional injuries in 2000 as well as the relationships between social position in 1999 and those injuries. For the possible solutions, a survey in 2064 household was performed to elicit people’s preferences and willingness to pay for different health care financing options. The results showed that unintentional injuries imposed a large economic burden on society, especially on the victims. By two pathways – treatment costs and income losses – unintentional injury increased the risk of being poor. The losses for non-poor and poor injured households were about 15 and 11 months of income of an average person in the non-poor and poor group, respectively. Furthermore, poverty was shown to be a probable cause of non-fatal unintentional injuries. Specifically, poverty led to home injuries among children and the elderly, and adults 15 – 49 years of age were particularly at risk in the workplace. The middle-income group was at greatest risk for traffic injuries, probably due to the unsafe use of bicycles or motorbikes. About half of the population preferred to keep an out-of-pocket system and the other half preferred health insurance. People’s willingness to pay suggested that a community-based health insurance scheme would be feasible. However, improvements in the existing health insurance systems are imperative to attract people to participate in these or any alternative health insurance schemes, since the limitations of the existing systems were generalized to health insurance as a whole. A successful solution should follow two tracks: prepayment of health care and some insurance based compensation of income losses during the illness period. If the risk of catastrophic illness is more evenly spread across the society, it would increase the general welfare even if no more resources are provided.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate whether legal rights are upheld when wording and applying the postponement of payment of tax regulations of chapter 17 section 2 p. 2-3 of the payment of Tax Act. We also investigate how the wording of the regulations relate to the requirement of legal security. It has been questioned if the regulations concerning postponement of payment of tax are compatible with the requirement of legal security. Of course does not a taxpayer want to pay tax that he or she consider incorrect, and that has not been under trial by an impartial authority. If the request for postponement of payment of tax is rejected, the consequences for the taxpayer can lead to huge financial losses. The worse scenario for the taxpayer is if he or she goes bankrupt due to the rejected request. The tax assessment regulations forming the basis for the postponement of payment of tax regulations are considered disputable, which has brought the matter to the fore. When ap-plying for reassessment or making an appeal, the question arises whether the tax in process should be submitted before the matter has been settled. The regulations of chapter 23 sec-tion 7 of the payment of Tax Act stipulate that the obligation to submit taxes remains re-gardless of its disputability. The only way the taxpayer can avoid having to submit taxes be-forehand is to apply for postponement of payment of the tax. When the application for postponement of payment of tax has reached the Tax Authority it is treated separately from the underlying tax assessment matter. However, the outcome of the postponement of payment of tax matter depends on the prerequisites on which the tax assessment is based. This thesis is based on the regulations of chapter 17 section 2 p. 2-3 of the payment of Tax Act. The section stipulates that postponement of payment of tax may be granted in matters where the outcome of an ongoing tax assessment process may be uncertain, or where it may lead to considerable damage or else appear unreasonable to submit taxes. The founda-tions for judgment are very vaguely worded, which creates room for subjective interpreta-tions, and moreover, it means that judicial authorities must fill up the prerequisites with their judgments. Unclear bases for judgment limit taxpayers’ demands for predictable taxa-tion, and the risk both local tax offices and the Tax Authority and administrative courts make different assessments is great. When the Tax Authority and the administrative courts treat claims for postponement of payment of tax, legal rights must always be considered. There are often deficiencies in the handling of the matters, which impair the taxpayers’ legal rights. The matters should be suf-ficiently investigated and the decisions motivated in a satisfactory manner. Moreover, the handling of claims for postponement of payment of tax should be objective, and decisions made with consideration to the consequences of the ruling. As things are at present, it takes a considerable amount of time for the courts to investigate the underlying tax assessment, which means the consequences of not being granted a post-ponement of payment of tax are so much the graver. This also means that the taxpayer is forced to live a long time in financial and psychological uncertainty. One suggestion of how to come to terms with this problem is to increase specialization in the administrative courts. The lack of clearly worded legal texts, preparatory work and practice leads to predictability being impaired for the individual and create difficulties for the Tax Authority and the ad-ministrative courts. From a legal rights perspective, more generous regulations regarding postponement of payment of tax should be introduced. One suggestion is to turn the main regulation of chapter 23 section 7 of the payment of Tax Act around. Postponement of payment of tax would then be granted unless particular reasons for its denial exist. An al-ternative to this suggestion may be to leave the main regulation in its current wording and have the exception regulations of chapter 17 section 2 of the payment of Tax Act grant postponement of payment of tax, unless particular reasons hindering this exist. In such a case of denying postponement of payment of tax the reasons for denial should be speci-fied. / I uppsatsen undersöks om rättssäkerheten upprätthålls vid tillämpningen av anståndsbe-stämmelserna i 17 kap. 2 § p. 2-3 SBL. Samt hur utformningen av bestämmelserna förhåller sig till kraven på rättssäkerhet. Det har ifrågasatts om anståndsbestämmelserna är förenliga med rättssäkerhetens krav. Detta följer av att en skattskyldig naturligtvis inte vill betala skatt som denne anser är felak-tig och som inte ännu har hunnits prövats av en oberoende instans. Avslås en anståndsbe-gäran kan detta få stora ekonomiska konsekvenser för den skattskyldige. I värsta fall riske-rar den skattskyldige att försättas i konkurs. Anledningen till att anståndsbestämmelserna uppkommer är att det underliggande taxe-ringsbeslutet som ligger till grund för dessa är tvistigt. Vid en begäran avseende ompröv-ning eller överklagan uppstår frågan huruvida den berörda skatten som är under process skall betalas innan ärendet är avgjort. Enligt huvudregeln i 23 kap. 7 § SBL stadgas det att skyldigheten att erlägga skatt består oavsett om den är tvistig. Den utväg som återstår för den skattskyldige att slippa att betala skatten innan beslutet vunnit laga kraft är att begära anstånd med betalningen av skatten. När begäran om anstånd inkommit till Skatteverket blir detta ett ärende som hanteras separat från den underliggande taxeringsfrågan, dock är utgången av anståndsärendet beroende av de rekvisit som ligger till grund för taxering. Uppsatsens inriktning syftar till reglerna i 17 kap. 2 § p. 2-3 SBL. I paragrafen stadgas att anstånd kan ges i fall, där utgången i en pågående skatteprocess är tveksam eller där det kan medföra betydande skadeverkningar eller annars framstå som oskäligt att betala skatten. Dessa bedömningsgrunder är som synes mycket vagt utformade, vilket skapar utrymme för subjektiva tolkningar och dessutom innebär detta att de rättstillämpande instanserna måste fylla ut rekvisiten med sina bedömningar. Oklara grunder för bedömning medför att de skattskyldigas krav på en förutsebar beskattning inskränks, dessutom är risken för olikfor-mig bedömning mellan både lokala Skatteverkskontor samt mellan Skatteverket och för-valtningsdomstolarna stor. I behandlingen av anståndsärendet hos Skatteverket och förvaltningsdomstolarna finns det flera rättssäkerhetsaspekter som bör uppfyllas. I flera av dess finns brister i handläggningen som gör att den skattskyldiges rättssäkerhet kan komma att begränsas. Ärendet skall utre-das tillräcklig och när beslut lämnas skall detta motiveras för den skattskyldige på ett till-fredsställande sätt. Dessutom bör hanteringen av anståndsärendet skötas objektivt och hän-syn till konsekvenserna av beslutet bör beaktas. I nuläget är handläggningstiderna för att få den underliggande taxeringsfrågan utredd av domstolarna mycket lång, vilket innebär att konsekvenserna av att inte få anstånd med be-talning av skatten blir ännu större. Det innebär att den skattskyldige under lång tid tvingas leva i både ekonomisk och psykologisk ovisshet. Ett förslag för att komma till rätta med problemet är att en ökad specialisering inom förvaltningsdomstolarna sker. Bristen på klar lagtext, förarbeten och praxis leder till att förutsebarheten inskränks för den enskilde samt svårigheter för Skatteverket och domstolarna vid lagtillämpning. Ur rättssä-kerhetssynpunkt bör generösare bestämmelser angående anstånd med betalning av skatt in-föras. Ett förslag är att vända på huvudregeln i 23 kap. 7 § SBL. Anstånd skulle då som hu-vudregel medges. Om det däremot föreligger särskilda skäl skall den skattskyldige nekas an-stånd. Ett alternativ till detta förslag skulle vara att huvudregeln står kvar i nuvarande ut-formning, men att undantagsreglerna i 17 kap. 2 § SBL regelmässigt medger anstånd om inte särskilda skäl talar emot detta. I ett sådant anståndsavslag skall skälen som ligger till grund för beslutet preciseras.