Light is seldom addressed in archaeological research, despite the fact that, at least in ancient Egypt, it would have impacted upon all aspects of life. When discussing light in Egyptology, the vast majority of scholarly attention is placed on the sun, the primary source of illumination. In comparison, artificial light receives very little attention, primarily due to a lack of archaeological evidence for lighting equipment prior to the 7th century BC. However, 19th and 20th century lychnological studies have exaggerated this point by placing an overwhelming emphasis on decorated lamps from the Greco-Roman Period. In an attempt to move beyond these antiquarian roots, recent scholarship has turned towards examining the role that light, both natural and artificial, played in aspects of ancient societies’ architecture, ideology and religion. The extensive body of archaeological, textual and iconographic evidence that remains from ancient Egypt is well suited to this type of study and forms three core data sets in this thesis. Combining a materials-based examination of artificial light with a contextualized, theoretical analysis contributes to a richer understanding of ancient Egyptian culture from the 3rd to 1st millennium BC. The first three chapters of this study establish a typology of known artificial lighting equipment, as well as a lexicon of lighting terminology. A comparison of the archaeological and textual evidence allows for a discussion on the consumption of lighting in ancient Egypt and its impact on social and economic spheres. From this material it becomes apparent that artificial light was a luxury and this corresponds to its inclusion in religious texts and iconography, as well as the presence of lighting implements in tombs of the wealthy elite. The second half of the thesis examines the ritual application of artificial light, incorporating iconographic and textual evidence, consideration of ritual space and timing, and experimental archaeology. This interdisciplinary approach allows for a discussion of the sensory experience of artificial lighting and its perceived potency in ancient Egypt. It also demonstrates the contribution that Egyptology can make to lychnological and sensory studies of the ancient Near East and Mediterranean by examining the impact of light on phenomenology and aesthetics.

The utilisation of minerals in Ancient Egyptian medicine from procurement through to use is examined here in a case study investigating the role of sodium salts. The sodium salts, salt and natron are two of the three most commonly used minerals in the Egyptian pharmacopeia. The results of the project are important to medical historians and archaeomineralogists alike in that they formulate a systematic understanding of the way in which minerals were used in medical and medically associated industries. Key sources of salt and natron were examined and the Wadi Natrun was identified as the probable main site of natrun exploitation. A comprehensive study conducted of this area involved examining sources of a historical geographical nature and analysis of mineralogical samples gathered from fieldwork in the Wadi Natrun. From the source of exploitation, natron and salt were sold to the Egyptians to be used in a number of everyday industries as well as for their use in medical and medically associated industries. Salt and natron were found to be used for their astringent and cleansing qualities, and are still being used in traditional medical formulations. Prescription replication showed that these substances worked effectively. Additional research into medically associated industries showed commonality between sodium salts use between all three industries investigated. The results of this research shows that a comprehensive study of the use of minerals in medicine could be established. Primary sites of exploitation of both salt and natron were identified, and minerals from theses sites were categorised and identified. The results showed that the chemical nature of these deposits had changed in the last 2000 years. The results also demonstrate reasons why the language surrounding the term natron needed to be revised. These results have implications for both archaeology and the history of medicine.

The utilisation of minerals in Ancient Egyptian medicine from procurement through to use is examined here in a case study investigating the role of sodium salts. The sodium salts, salt and natron are two of the three most commonly used minerals in the Egyptian pharmacopeia. The results of the project are important to medical historians and archaeomineralogists alike in that they formulate a systematic understanding of the way in which minerals were used in medical and medically associated industries. Key sources of salt and natron were examined and the Wadi Natrun was identified as the probable main site of natrun exploitation. A comprehensive study conducted of this area involved examining sources of a historical geographical nature and analysis of mineralogical samples gathered from fieldwork in the Wadi Natrun. From the source of exploitation, natron and salt were sold to the Egyptians to be used in a number of everyday industries as well as for their use in medical and medically associated industries. Salt and natron were found to be used for their astringent and cleansing qualities, and are still being used in traditional medical formulations. Prescription replication showed that these substances worked effectively. Additional research into medically associated industries showed commonality between sodium salts use between all three industries investigated. The results of this research shows that a comprehensive study of the use of minerals in medicine could be established. Primary sites of exploitation of both salt and natron were identified, and minerals from theses sites were categorised and identified. The results showed that the chemical nature of these deposits had changed in the last 2000 years. The results also demonstrate reasons why the language surrounding the term natron needed to be revised. These results have implications for both archaeology and the history of medicine.

Title: The influence of culture on the selection process of international market and entry mode. Level: Master Thesis in Business Management Authors: Samed Zaatra & Nabil Al-Taji Supervisor: Professor Ehsanul Huda Chowdhry, Ph.D. Examiner: Professor Maria Fregidou-Malama, Ph.D. Date: June 2017 Aim: The study aims to investigate the influence of cultural similarities when business entities decide to expand their business and enter a new market and it also focuses on the selecting process of the entry modes in regard to the cultural similarity. Methodology: Qualitative case study conducting semi-structured interviews as a main source for the primary data and support it with the pervious and current theoretical framework as the secondary data collection.  Findings: Many factors have an influence on the selection process of entry mode, and they are all connected to each other in some way. The main important factors are the level of risk and level of commitment. The cultural differences and similarities have an influence on the selection process of entry mode, which the more similarities, the lower risk, and vice versa. Contribution: This Study provides better understanding of the effect of culture similarity & entry modes. This study also contributes to the general business environment by which, all companies despite the fact of the size or the product line they have, they all should be aware of many opportunities and threats surrounding them when deciding to enter a new market. The study generates a viewpoint of using the similarity as a motivation for starting a business in a similar market.    Result & Conclusions:  We figured out in this research that the culture similarity has no influence on the motive behind expanding and entering new markets since the motive for companies to expand is the growth of market share, sales, and profit. On the other hand, cultural similarities and low physical distance along with an opportunity in the market is a significant motive that pushes companies toward expanding, and it will increase the companies’ experiences and the possibility of success in the culturally different market and a market with a high physical distance. Limitations: This study approach is qualitative, i.e. a limited number of companies are investigated. On the other hand, the small amount of the secondary data that was available in regards the topic was rear. Also, regarding the geographical distance between the country that we conducted the study at ‘Sweden’ and ‘Egypt’ where the headquarter of Dawlia21 is, also we only Skype interviews, it would be more reliable if it were face to face interviews. Suggestions for future research: Cultural similarity would be the main topic to consider in the field of investigation as long as there are not too many academic articles about it, so we suggest for more focus on the area of cultural similarities. The second part that would be an interesting to study would be the African market as a general and each country as accurate because we believe as researchers that the time will come, and this market will improve and get better on the economic and business levels.

Doctorat en philosophie et lettres / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Dans les sociétés en voie de développement comme la Syrie et l'Egypte, les assurances sociales constituent un pilier important dans les mesures où elles jouent un rôle important dans le financement de la croissance économique / In developing societies like Syria and Egypt, social insurance can play an important role in the in the financing of economic

En décembre 1881, une jeune Irlandaise arriva au Caire avec son mari. Elle avait déjà beaucoup lu sur Urabi, mais c'est au Caire qu'elle eut de la chance d'avoir rencontré le nationaliste égyptien qui se révoltait activement contre le régime de Khedive et contre l'intervention britannique. Cette jeune femme était Lady Augusta Gregory, généralement connue en tant que dramaturge et folkloriste, et surtout comme la cofondatrice de l'Abbey Theatre, avec W.B. Yeats. La présente thèse prend comme point de départ cette note de l'échange entre deux nations en train de se libérer de la domination de l'Empire britannique, aussi bien que leur trajet commun qui consiste en se définir et se comprendre à travers le rôle que le théâtre joue au fil de ce parcours. Notre étude prend donc en considération l'Irlande, avec son nationalisme culturel et son théâtre politiquement engagé, en tant qu'étude de cas à comparer avec la place du théâtre en Égypte dans les années 1960. Dans ce contexte, l'étude se fonde sur l'hypothèse que, grâce à sa capacité performative, le théâtre se dote du pouvoir de s'engager dans la politique de son temps et, en quelque sorte, de s’y imposer son influence. Elle explore notamment les pièces égyptiennes et irlandaises de la deuxième moitié du XXe siècle afin d'analyser le rôle du théâtre et du spectacle, actuel et potentiel, à l'égard du champ politique, tant dans ce contexte particulier que sous d'autres angles. En étudiant les œuvres de Tawfiq al-Hakim, Mikhail Roman, Yusuf Idris et Salah Abdul-Saboor, aussi bien que celles de Brian Friel, Frank McGuinness et Samuel Beckett, la présente thèse non seulement tente de cartographier l'esthétique politique des temps incertains et des lieux apparemment disparates, mais elle envisage également les dynamiques de la révolte en tant que mise en scène de par sa nature, ce qui révèle la pertinence de l’étude par rapport aux expériences du monde contemporain. / In December 1881, a young Irish woman arrived in Cairo with her husband. She had already read much about Urabi, but in Cairo she had a chance to meet the Egyptian nationalist, who was actively revolting against the Khedive’s rule and Western, especially British, intervention in the region. This young woman was Lady Augusta Gregory, most famous for her role as a dramatist and folklorist, and most importantly as a co-founder of the Abbey theatre with W.B. Yeats. This dissertation starts on that note of exchange between two nations trying to liberate themselves from the British Empire and is especially interested in the role of the theatre in the process. The thesis, thus, looks at Ireland with its cultural nationalism and its politically engaged theatre as a case study and compares it to the role of the theatre in Egypt in the 1960s. It begins with the assumption that theatre with its performative capacity has the power to engage with and to an extent affect the politics of its day. As such it explores plays from Egypt and Ireland in the second half of the 20th century in order to look into the role theatre and performance have played and can potentially play in politics, in these specific contexts and beyond. By examining works by Tawfiq al-Hakim, Mikhail Roman, Yusuf Idris, and Salah Abdul-Saboor, alongside Brian Friel, Frank McGuinness and, of course, Samuel Beckett, this dissertation helps map not only the political aesthetics of unsteady times and seemingly disparate places, but it also reflects on the dynamics of revolt as a staged act in and of itself, which highlights its relevance to our contemporary world.

Scholarship on the modern history of the Middle East has undergone profound revision in the previous three decades or so. Many earlier perceptions, largely based on modernization theory, have been either contested or modified. However, the perception of the Egyptian ulama (the traditionally-educated, religious Muslim scholars) in academic scholarship remains largely affected by the legacy of hypotheses of the modernization theory. Old assumptions that the Egyptian ulama were submissive to political power and passive players incapable of accommodating, let alone of fathoming, conditions of the modern world, and who chose or were forced to retreat from this world, losing much, if not all, of their relevance and significance, still infuse the scholarly literature. Making use of materials obtained from the Egyptian National Archives, this study offers an examination of modern legal reform in Egypt from the nineteenth century through the first part of the twentieth century with the ulama and their legal institutions in mind. As the findings of this study effectively illustrate, the Egyptian ulama were by no means submissive. Rather, they were patient. Far from being passive agents of the past, the Egyptian ulama were active participants who played a critical role in the building of modern Egypt. The ulama had at their disposal sustained social and moral influence, a long-standing position as community leaders, a reputation as defenders and representatives of Islam, the power to validate or invalidate the political establishment by means of public and doctrinal legitimization, and the final authority over laws of family and personal status. Through these strengths, the ulama were able to influence the direction of change and to impact its scope and nature during transitional period that witnessed the making and remaking of modern Egypt. Considering the nature of changes that they allowed to be introduced to the shari-based justice system and the ones they resisted, as well as their stance regarding social matters, the Egyptian ulama comprehended and recognized modernity as useful. Advanced techniques had to be embraced to strengthen state institutions. However, the ulama thwarted massive and sudden adoption of modernity's cultural elements, so that Egypt would not become a chaotic country and go astray. On the weight of their position as the ultimate authority over family law, the Egyptian ulama blocked rapid social change imposed from the top. Alterations to family law and the social structure were undertaken gradually and with a great deal of delicacy. Therefore, the long-standing social order was not suddenly destroyed and replaced with a new one. Instead, changes to the long-standing social structure were allowed to evolve slowly, while the core was largely preserved. The ulama's far-reaching plan, which was realized in the long run, was to maintain Islam's position in modern Egypt as a guide and as the main source of legitimacy. As will be shown in this study, the history of the Egyptian ulama reveals not passivity, detachment, or submission but careful, and deliberate action.

Internet is fundamentally transforming the nature of the relationship that businesses have with consumers and the public. While e-commerce has witnessed extensive growth in recent years, consumers concerns regarding ethical issues surrounding online shopping also continue to increase. With increasing acceptance of the internet as a source for retail, ethical issues concerning internet usage have prompted serious concerns to consumers and created new challenges for practitioners. These growing concerns about safety and ethical behavior in online retailing can harm and restrain internet retail growth and deter consumers from online activities. Marketers must understand how these ethical challenges relate to dissatisfaction and distrust in the online retailing environment to foster further growth. The vast majority of earlier research on this area is conceptual in nature and limited in scope by focusing on consumers’ privacy issues. In an online context, this study proposes and tests a conceptual model that will discover the relationships between ethical factors associated to online providers’ web sites (e.g. security, privacy, non-deception, fulfilment, service recovery, shared value, and communication) and customer satisfaction to online providers’ web sites. It also explores a mediating role of trust and commitment on the link between ethical factors and customer satisfaction. Furthermore, the current study examines the differences between e-commerce ethics between the UK and Egypt in the context of B2C and B2B e-commerce. The conceptual model is then tested with a total of 980 completed questionnaires collected from two sample countries; namely, Egypt and the UK. These were analysed through a multivariate analysis using a variance-based statistical technique known as Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling. The findings of this study show significant support for the proposed model. As predicted, BPSE is a second-order construct composed of seven dimensions (i.e., security, privacy, fulfilment, non-deception, service recovery, communication, and shared value). Trust and commitment mediate the relationship between BPSE and satisfaction. In addition, II reliability/fulfilment and non-deception are the most effective dimensions in BPSE. Byer’s perceptions regarding sellers’ ethics (BPSE) has a significant influence on consumer satisfaction. No major differences between the two country models were found. These findings have both theoretical and practical implications in that the results have provided empirical evidence on the indirect impact of BPSE on customer satisfaction and can serve as an indication in practice for both online service providers managers and policy makers in understanding consumers’ perceptions about e-commerce ethics and its effects on customer satisfaction.

Saudi Arabia has, in recent years, experienced a remarkable development in publishing, due to the expansion of education, the encouragement of writers and publications by the government, and the Islamic heritage. In this context, a National Bibliography is a vital ingredient in promoting publications and encouraging their wider use. The objective of this study is three-fold: to find a model for National Bibliography in the KSA; to consider this proposal in the context of Arab national bibliographies and in the light of broader international aspects. The method of study involved reading a wide range of works on the subject, including papers and conference documents as well as books. Interviews were conducted with individuals and organisations connected with the subject. Description and analysis of works in Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Tunisia were made according to the following plan: publisher; need and aim; scope of coverage (period, subject, type and number); organisation; bibliographical description; and depository law. Most of the bibliographic works produced in the KSA have been for specific purposes, appearing at different periods and often overlapping. They cannot themselves be regarded as a retrospective national bibliography but could be useful in producing one. Egypt and Tunisia are chosen for study as both have experienced similar problems to the KSA and both have a tradition of regular national bibliography. In both countries, the National Library produces the National Bibliography. Their experiences are considered useful for positive adoption of successful features and avoidance of shortcardngs in setting up a Saudi National Bibliography. In addition, a wider examination of Arab Bibliography and international definitions and practices has been made. Deposition law, as a vital feature of successful bibliography production, has also been considered for the main countries studied and for others. The National Library of Saudi Arabia should be the body to publish the prospective National Bibliography, benefiting fron the examples given above. Recarmendations are made for the administration and working of the New Bibliography.