Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-12T14:47:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Bruno Bonemberger_ da Silva.pdf: 2742297 bytes, checksum: caffe80e4c328becd1f17a199c916184 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-12-10 / The estimate evapotranspiration is a key factor in sustainable water management in irrigated agriculture, the actual crop water requirement established objectively, without generating waste of energy and water by excessive irrigation, and, on the other side, without compromising the agricultural production by its deficit. In this sense, the study aimed to estimate the daily actual evapotranspiration (-Etr) to local and regional scale, using Landsat 8 images (- OLI / TIRS), and additional data collected from a weather station, applying the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land algorithm (- SEBAL). The study area is located in the west of Paraná, in Salto do Lontra County, consisting of irrigated agricultural area, native vegetation and urban area. It was used orbit image / site 223/78 in Julian days 336 2013 and 19, 35, 131 and 195 in 2014. The daily ETr was estimated from the latent heat flux density (LE), obtained from the equation residue of the energy balance. The algorithm consists of several steps which include radiometric calibration, the reflectance calculation, the surface albedo, vegetation index (NDVI, SAVI, and leaf area index - LAI), and emissivity, which are obtained from data from the sensor reflective bands orbital, with the surface temperature estimated from the thermal band. The results showed that the algorithm estimated the components of the energy balance, with higher values than the results generally obtained from previous studies. Concerning to the estimated Etr, there was good agreement between estimates obtained by SEBAL and by the Penman Monteith FAO 56 model, validating the algorithm. The errors between the models were less than or equal to 1.00 mm day-1, results similar to those found in the literature. / A estimativa da evapotranspiração é fator chave no manejo hídrico sustentável em agricultura irrigada, a real necessidade hídrica da cultura de forma objetiva, sem gerar desperdício de energia e água pelo excesso de irrigação e sem comprometer a produção pelo déficit da mesma. Neste sentido, o estudo teve por objetivo estimar a evapotranspiração real diária-ETr, para escala local e regional, utilizando imagens Landsat 8 - OLI/TIRS e dados complementares coletados de uma estação meteorológica, aplicando-se o algoritmo Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land - SEBAL . A área do estudo fica localizada no oeste paranaense no município de Salto do Lontra, composta por áreas agrícolas irrigadas e de sequeiro, vegetação nativa e parte urbana. Foi utilizada imagem da órbita/ponto 223/78, nos dias juliano 336 de 2013 e 19, 35, 131 e 195 de 2014. A ETr diária foi estimada a partir da densidade de fluxo de calor latente (LE), obtida do resíduo da equação do balanço de energia. O algoritmo é constituído de várias etapas que incluem calibração radiométrica, cálculo da reflectância, albedo da superfície, índices de vegetação (NDVI, SAVI e índice de área foliar - IAF) e emissividade, sendo estes obtidos a partir de dados das bandas reflectivas do sensor orbital, com a temperatura da superfície estimada a partir da banda termal. Os resultados mostraram que o algoritmo estimou os componentes do balanço de energia, com valores geralmente superiores aos resultados de outros estudos. Quanto à Etr estimada, houve boa concordância entre estimativas obtidas pelo SEBAL e o modelo Penman Monteith FAO 56, validando o algoritmo. Os erros entre os modelos foram iguais ou menores a 1,00 mm dia-1, resultados semelhantes ao encontrado em literatura.

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Les programmes d'activité physique et les régimes alimentaires sont communément utilisés pour favoriser, en réduisant la balance énergétique, la perte de poids des patients en surpoids ou obèses. De tels programmes pâtissent d'une faible adhésion de la part des patients et d'un taux élevé d'abandons dû aux difficultés que rencontrent les individus à concilier exercice et restriction d'énergie. Il a été suggéré que l'exercice physique était un moyen potentiel pour réguler l'apport indirect d'énergie, ce qui pourrait s'avérer intéressant sur le plan du traitement de l'obésité.L'impact que l'exercice pouvait avoir sur la balance énergétique subséquente (apport et dépense énergétiques), ainsi que sur l'appétit, a été principalement étudié dans le cas d'adultes de faible corpulence, mais peu de données sont disponibles pour les populations d'individus obèses, et tout particulièrement pour les enfants qui souffrent d'obésité.Le but premier de ce travail était donc de déterminer si un exercice réalisé à un moment précis pouvait par la suite affecter la balance énergétique ainsi que l'appétit des adolescents obèses (Etude I). Par la suite, nous avons étudié l'importance que pouvait avoir l'intensité de l'exercice prescrit (intensité faible VS intensité élevée) sur les modifications de la balance énergétique et de l'exercice (Etude II). Les résultats démontrent qu'un exercice intensif (>70%VO2 max), exécuté en fin de matinée, favorise une balance énergétique réduite en diminuant principalement l'apport d'énergie. Cependant, les données restent contradictoires concernant l'apport de macronutriments après l'exercice, et il est nécessaire d'approfondir les recherches. En ce qui concerne les adaptations de la balance énergétique et de l'appétit après l'exercice, aucune différence n'avait été observée en fonction du sexe des individus. Les adaptations observées en termes d'apport énergétique n'étaient pas accompagnées de changements en termes de sensation de faim, ce qui laisse à penser que les adolescents obèses ne risquent pas de ressentir de la frustration.En 24h, la balance énergétique des adolescents obèses peut être réduite grâce à la fois à une dépense énergétique élevée et à un apport d'énergie réduit, quand un exercice intensif est réalisé en fin de matinée. Etant donné que de tels résultats découlent d'actes à caractère chroniques, il est nécessaire de les interroger, afin de savoir si l'exercice intensif peut s'avérer être un véritable outil permettant d'induire sur le long terme une réduction de la balance énergétique (en affectant à la fois la dépense et l'apport énergétique), et par la suite une perte de poids. / Physical activity programs and dietary restrictions are commonly used to favor weight-loss in overweight and obese patients, by reducing energy balance. Such programs suffer of a low adherence and high drop-out due to the difficulties met by patients to concomitantly support exercise and energy restriction. Physical exercise has been proposed as a potential indirect energy intake modulator, which could be interesting in terms of obesity treatment. The impact of exercise on subsequent energy balance (intake and expenditure) and appetite has been mainly questioned among lean adults but few data are available in obese populations, particularly pediatrics. The first aim of this work was then to determine whether or not an acute bout of exercise could affect subsequent energy balance and appetite in obese adolescents (STUDY I). Then the importance of the prescribed exercise intensity (Low vs High intensity) on those energy balance and appetite modifications has been investigated (STUDY II). The results demonstrate that an intensive exercise (>70%VO2max) realized by the end of the morning favors a reduced energy balance by mainly decreasing energy intake. The induced energy intake decrease was observed within minutes after the exercise (30 minutes, lunch time), with the onset being experienced about 7 hours after, during dinner time. Data remain however contradictive concerning the post exercise macronutrient intake, and further investigations are required. No gender difference was observed in terms of post exercise energy balance and appetite adaptations. The observed energy intake adaptations were not accompanied by appetite sensation modifications, suggesting that obese adolescents are not at risk for food frustration. Within 24-h, obese adolescents’ energy balance can be reduced thanks to both elevated energy expenditure and decreased energy intake when an intensive exercise is performed by the end of the morning. Such results need to be questioned as part of chronic interventions to know whether or not intensive exercise can provide a great tool to induced long term energy balance reduction (by dually affecting energy expenditure and intake) and then weight loss.

The Hindu-Kush Himalayan region possesses a large resource of snow and ice, which acts as a freshwater reservoir for irrigation, domestic water consumption or hydroelectric power for billions of people in South Asia. Monitoring hydrologic resources in this region is challenging because of the difficulty of installing and maintaining a climate and hydrologic monitoring network, limited transportation and communication infrastructure and difficult access to glaciers. As a result of the high, rugged topographic relief, ground observations in the region are extremely sparse. Reanalysis data offer the potential to compensate for the data scarcity, which is a barrier in hydrological modeling and analysis for improving water resources management. Reanalysis weather data products integrate observations with atmospheric model physics to produce a spatially and temporally complete weather record in the post-satellite era. This dissertation creates an integrated hydrologic modeling system that tests whether streamflow prediction can be improved by taking advantage of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) remote sensing and reanalysis weather data products in physically based energy balance snow melt and hydrologic models. This study also enhances the energy balance snowmelt model by adding capability to quantify glacier melt. The novelty of this integrated modeling tool resides in allowing the user to isolate various components of surface water inputs (rainfall, snow and glacier ice melt) in a cost-free, open source graphical-user interface-based system that can be used for government and institutional decision-making. Direct, physically based validation of this system is challenging due to the data scarcity in this region, but, to the extent possible, the model was validated through comparison to observed streamflow and to point measurements at locations in the United States having available data

The Colorado Basin River Forecast Center (CBRFC) provides forecasts of streamflow for purposes such as flood warning and water supply. Much of the water in these basins comes from spring snowmelt, and the forecasters at CBRFC currently employ a suite of models that include a temperature-index snowmelt model. While the temperature-index snowmelt model works well for weather and land cover conditions that do not deviate from those historically observed, the changing climate and alterations in land use necessitate the use of models that do not depend on calibrations based on past data. This dissertation reports work done to overcome these limitations through using a snowmelt model based on physically invariant principles that depends less on calibration and can directly accommodate weather and land use changes. The first part of the work developed an ability to update the conditions represented in the model based on observations, a process referred to as data assimilation, and evaluated resulting improvements to the snowmelt driven streamflow forecasts. The second part of the research was the development of web services that enable automated and efficient access to and processing of input data to the hydrological models as well as parallel processing methods that speed up model executions. These tasks enable the more detailed models and data assimilation methods to be more efficiently used for streamflow forecasts.

<p>Riksbyggen Fastighetsservice is a company whose businesses cope with building construction and related services. The local office of Riksbyggen Fastighetsservice in Gävle has been studied in this project. The local office locates in Näringen 20:4, which was constructed in 1989.</p><p> </p><p>The aim of this project is to make a diagnosis of the current situation; find out the most applicable way of optimizing the operation of the facility in order to reduce the energy consumption, to study costs and possible savings and provide assistance with future energy management.   </p><p> </p><p>Firstly, a study of Energy Balance was conducted. The transmission losses was 57761 KWh; mechanical ventilation losses 3855 KWh; hot tap water heat losses 9579 KWh; natural transmission and infiltration 6897 KWh. On the other hand, heat gain from internal heat was 12707 KWh; solar radiation 8521 KWh; and supply heat 56806 KWh.</p><p> </p><p>Secondly, the energy costs have been checked out. 29655 KWh of electricity was consumed in 2008. 5948 KWh was used by 20 fuses electricity and 23707 KWh was for 25 fuses. Lighting, electrical equipment and machine composed the electricity consumption. Lighting consumes 13278 KWh; equipment consumes 6452 KWh; and machine consumes 9925 KWh. Lighting electricity was composed by office lighting and workshop lighting with 4798 KWh and 8480 KWh respectively.</p><p> </p><p>Electricity cost is very complicated and flexible in Sweden according to effect and consumption. The total cost of electricity consists of electricity commerce fee and electricity transmission net. Electricity commerce fee includes annual fixed fee, electricity fee, energy certificate and tax. Electricity transmission fee includes annual fixed transmission fee, grid fee and tax. Tax plays vital important role which results in huge total cost. The local office spent 43356 kr on electricity in 2008. 4798 kr was spent on office lighting, and 8480 kr was spent on workshop lighting.</p><p> </p><p>On the other hand district heating fee is composed by annual fixed fee, effect fee, energy fee and tax. The local office spent 37142 kr on 56.806 MWh of district heating in 2008. Thus, the local office purchased 86461 KWh of energies and spent 80498 kr in total in 2008.</p><p> </p><p>Thirdly, to assist its energy traces and management, three tables were designed. One table is for annual energy consumption and cost in each month with all information of sub-terms on costs. One table is for annual electricity consumption for each electrical equipment and cost in accordance. Another table is for district heating consumption and cost. </p><p> </p><p>At last, energy saving possibilities was explored. One way is applying improvements or maintenance of the office construction. The result of Energy Balance shows that transmission losses were 57761 KWh which occupies 74% of the total losses, and it is the biggest bite. As the office was constructed in 1989, if improvements and maintenance can be applied to the insulation of floor, roof and walls, or change the windows, the heat losses can be reduced.</p><p> </p><p>However, the other solution might be much more applicable and financial sound. Just go to Clas Ohlson to buy LED 1 W and 3 W lamps to replace the current bulbs. Spending 3009 kr to buy 51 LED incandescent bulbs of 1W effect, and 3576 kr on 24 LED fluorescent of 3W effect, will save 12057 kr every year. The lighting electricity consumption will be reduced from 13278 KWh / year to 264 KWh / year. Instead of spending 16017 kr on lighting, 98% will be reduced, and only 318 kr will be paid. Moreover, the payback is really nice, only 0.42 year. Action! The sooner the better! 20% of energy cost will be saved!</p>

<p>The aim of this master thesis project is to make an energy survey for a group</p><p>of apartments and suggestions to change the heating system from electricity to a more</p><p>efficient one. There are in total 73 flats in 21 buildings. All flats are separated in several</p><p>houses from two to five flats in one building. There are two different kinds of flats. One</p><p>with three rooms in one floor, in the following referred to as ‘flat A’ and the other one</p><p>with four rooms in two floors, in the following referred to as ‘flat B’. [1]</p><p>In the area there are also two buildings for the commonalty. In these buildings there are a</p><p>shelter and several common rooms like a storage and a laundry. In our work these two</p><p>buildings are not included because they are used by everyone inside the community and</p><p>we could not obtain exact values for the used electricity and the water consumption. So</p><p>our work is specialised only on the residential houses.</p><p>The first part of this thesis contains the energy balance for the different kinds of flats to</p><p>see how much energy they consume for heating and hot tap water. To get theses values</p><p>we have to analyse the total energy flow into one flat and compare it with the energy</p><p>which is used because of transmission losses, ventilation losses, hot tap water, electricity</p><p>for the household and natural ventilation and infiltration.</p><p>The total energy consumption for flat A is about 19000 kWh per year and in flat B about</p><p>23200 kWh per year. But the electricity which is used and has to be bought is about</p><p>15600 kWh per year in flat A flat and 17600 kWh in flat B. The rest of the energy is from</p><p>so called free heat caused by solar radiation and internal heat generation. [1]</p><p>These numbers for the electricity need in one year create annual costs of about</p><p>20000 SEK in flat A and 22500 SEK in flat B. To reduce these costs it is necessary to</p><p>know where this energy goes and for what it is used.</p><p>The important parts of the energy balance for this thesis are the transmission losses, the</p><p>losses caused by natural ventilation and infiltration and the used energy for hot tap water.</p><p>The losses caused by mechanical ventilation have also a significant value, but they would</p><p>only affect the new heating system if the ventilation system would be connected to the</p><p>new system. And the electricity used in the household for electrical devices can only be</p><p>changed by the consumer himself. The part which is affecting the energy costs for the</p><p>transmission and natural ventilation losses and the hot tap water sums up to 9240 kWh per</p><p>year in flat A and flat B. This causes costs of about 10000 SEK per year.</p><p>To reduce these costs it is necessary to change the actual heating system. In the following</p><p>we analyse the saving potentials with a change to an air-water heat pump or with a</p><p>connection to the local district heating network.</p><p>The costs which can be saved with the installation of a heat pump sum up to about</p><p>7000 SEK per year. The installation costs are about 100000 SEK to 125000 SEK</p><p>depending on the different proposed models. If you consider that the existing electrical</p><p>boiler has to be changed anyway in the next years the investment costs for the</p><p>combination with a heat pump decreases. The payback time is then between 9½ and</p><p>13½ years. With assumed increasing electricity prices of 5 % each year the payback time</p><p>decreases to 8½ to 11 years.</p><p>With a connection of each flat to the local district heating network the energy costs for</p><p>heating and hot tap water decreases to 3200 SEK per year. Although the price per kWh for</p><p>district heating is much lower than for electricity the costs are not decreasing a lot</p><p>because of a high annual fixed fee of 7100 SEK. The saved money per year sums up to</p><p>300 SEK and 1000 SEK depending on the electricity contract. The payback time for this</p><p>alternative is between 50 and up to 160 years.</p><p>An alternative to the exchange of the heating and hot water system is to change the actual</p><p>heat exchanger of the ventilation system. With this measure the energy consumption can</p><p>be reduced with less investment costs. The investment costs for a new heat exchanger are</p><p>about 35000 SEK, including a new exhaust hood from the kitchen outwards to reduce the</p><p>contamination of the filters in the heat exchanger. [1]</p><p>The payback time ranges from 13 years in flat A to 21 years in flat B.</p>

This investigation examined acute energy compensation and macronutrient intake in habitually active and sedentary, college-aged males, following an exercise session as compared to a resting (control) session, to see if habitually active males compensate intake better to an energy deficit incurred by exercise, than sedentary males. Participants were males, aged 18-30 years, of a normal percent body fat and body mass index, and exercised < 60 min per week (sedentary) or > 150 min per week (habitually active). Participants came in for two sessions: 1) 45 minutes of resting (control) and then eating an ad libitum meal; and 2) riding a cycle ergometer for 45 minutes (exercise) and then eating an ad libitum meal. Sessions were counterbalanced across participants. Energy and macronutrient intake were calculated for the meal and over the remaining part of the day. Sedentary individuals ate significantly less during the meal in the exercise session (which expended a mean of 453.5 kcals across both groups) as compared to the control session (934.8 + 222.0 kcals vs. 1073.9 + 470.3 kcals, p < 0.03), which demonstrated negative energy compensation (-30.6%). The habitually active group showed no significant difference in energy intake between sessions at the meal (1016.8 + 396.7 kcal [control] vs. 1105.6 + 389.2 kcal [exercise]). While the habitually active group showed no significant difference in intake at the meal, the slight increase in intake at the meal in the exercise session demonstrated some energy compensation (19.6%), which was significantly better (p < 0.03) than that in the sedentary group. No differences in macronutrient intake at the meal were found between the sessions. Over the day following the sessions, both groups reported a significant increase in energy intake after the exercise session as compared to the control session (1457.5 + 646.2 kcals vs. 1356.1 + 657.2 kcals, p < 0.04), with no difference in macronutrient intake between the sessions. These results indicate that, although complete acute compensation did not occur, the habitually active group acutely compensated intake significantly more so than the sedentary group, demonstrating better energy regulation ability.

På grund av världens växande befolkning och urbaniseringen blir problem relaterade till fenomenet urbana värmeöar mer och mer påtagliga. Eftersom urbana parker kan minska påfrestningen skapad av urbana värmeöar kan de vara ett kraftfullt verktyg vid klimatdesign i städer. Temperaturen nära en yta bestäms av energiutbytet mellan ytan och luften ovanför och det är därför nödvändigt att man förstår energibalansen vid markytan för att kunna hantera parkernas mikroklimat. Syftet med det här arbetet var att studera skillnaderna mellan energibalansen för olika ytor i parken och i dess omgivning och att relatera skillnaderna i energibalanserna till temperaturskillnaderna. Mätningarna utfördes under tre klara sommardagar i parken Humlegården i centrala Stockholm. Mätutrustningen var monterad på en kärra som flyttades från mätplats till mätplats. Mätplatserna representerade olika typiska ytor i Humlegården och i dess omgivning: en skuggad och en öppen gräsmatta, en öppen och en skuggad grusyta och två asfaltytor, varav en löper i nord-sydlig riktning och en i öst-västlig riktning. Energiflödena beräknades med hjälp av data för luft- och yttemperatur, vindhastighet, luftfuktighet och nettostrålning. Resultaten visade att den tydligaste skillnaden mellan gräs- och grusytorna i parken var att gräsytorna hade ett större nedåtriktat latent värmeflöde under natten och ett mindre markvärmeflöde under hela dygnet. Den mest distinkta skillnaden mellan de skuggade och öppna ytorna i parken var att de skuggade ytorna hade mindre energiflöden under dagen och att de till skillnad från de andra ytorna hade ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde under dagen. Den största skillnaden mellan ytorna i och utanför parken var att asfaltytorna hade ett större uppåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde och markvärmeflöde under natten. Under natten var den svalaste mätplasten den öppna gräsmattan, vilken också var den enda mätplasten med ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde under natten. Jämfört med de andra ickeskuggade mätplasterna hade den öppna gräsmattan ett mindre markvärmeflöde. Varmaste mätplasterna under natten var asfaltytorna som även hade ett större uppåtriktat sensibelt och markvärmeflöde än de andra ytorna. Under dagen var de skuggade ytorna i parken de svalaste platserna. De var de enda ytorna med ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde och nettostrålningen vid ytan var mindre än för de flesta andra mätplatser. / The world’s growing population and the increasing urbanization has made problems related to the urban heat island phenomenon to become more pronounced and since urban parks reduce the stress produced by the urban heat island they can be powerful tools in urban climate design. The temperature near the surface in a park is determined by the energy exchanges between the surface and the air above and it is therefore necessary to understand the surface energy balance of parks to intelligently manage their thermal microclimate. The objectives of this work were to study how the energy balances differ between different surfaces inside parks and in their built-up surroundings and to relate the surface energy balances to temperature differences. Measurements were conducted during three clear summer days in the park Humlegården located in central Stockholm. The measuring instruments were mounted on a cart, which was transported from observation site to observation site. The observation sites represented typical surfaces found in an urban park and its surroundings: one shaded and one open grass surface, one open and one shaded gravel surface and two paved surfaces representing streets running in the north-south and east-west directions respectively. The energy fluxes were calculated using air and surface temperatures, wind speed, air humidity and net radiation data. The most pronounced differences between the shaded and open surfaces in the park was that the shaded surfaces in general had smaller energy fluxes during daytime and that they had a downward directed sensible heat flux while the open surfaces had an upward directed sensible heat flux during the day. The most significant difference between the grass and the gravel surfaces in the park was that the grass surfaces had a bigger downward directed latent heat flux during the night and a smaller ground heat flux during both day and night. The largest differences between the surfaces inside the park and those in its built-up vicinities were that the paved surfaces had a larger upward directed sensible and ground heat flux during the night than the other surfaces. During the day the north-south directed paved site had a downward directed ground heat flux that was much larger than the ground heat flux for the other sites. The coolest site during the night was the non-shaded grass surface, which was the only site with a downward directed sensible heat flux during the night. Compared to the other nonshaded sites the open grass surface had a much smaller ground heat flux. Warmest sites during the night were the paved surfaces, which had a larger upward directed sensible and ground heat flux than the other surfaces. At the built-up sites the walls also contributed with sensible heat flux, i.e. the total sensible heat flux in the built-up area was larger than what comes from the street surface only. During the day the shaded surfaces in the park were the coolest sites. The shaded surfaces had less net radiation compared to the other non-shaded surfaces and were the only sites that had a downward directed sensible heat flux.

It is well established that the temperature gradients in the interiors of internally-heated mantle convection models are subadiabatic (e.g. Parmentier et al., 1994; Bunge et al., 1997, 2001). The subadiabatic gradients have been explained to arise due to a balance between vertical advection and internal heating, however, a detailed analysis of the energy balance in the subadiabatic regions has not been undertaken. In this research, I examine in detail the energy balance in a suite of two-dimensional convection calculations with mixed internal and basal heating, depth-dependent viscosity and continents. I find that there are three causes of subadiabatic gradients. One is the above-mentioned balance, which becomes significant when the ratio of internal heating to surface heat flux is large. The second mechanism involves the growth of the overshoot (maximum and minimum Temperatures along a geotherm) of the geotherm near the lower boundary where the dominant balance is between vertical and horizontal advection. The latter mechanism is significant even in relatively weakly internally heated calculations. For time-dependent calculations, I find that local secular cooling can be a dominant term in the energy equation and can lead to subadiabaticity. However, it does not show its signature on the shape of the time-averaged geotherm. I also compare the basal heat flux with parameterized calculations based on the temperature drop at the core-mantle boundary, calculated both with and without taking the subadiabatic gradient into account and I find a significantly improved fit with its inclusion.<p> I also explore a wide range of parameter space to investigate the dynamical interaction between effects due to surface boundary conditions representing continental and oceanic lithosphere and the endothermic phase boundary at 660 km-depth in two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate convection calculations. I find that phase boundary induced mantle layering is strongly affected by the wavelength of convective flows and mixed surface boundary conditions strongly increase the horizontal wavelength of convection. My study shows that for mixed cases the effects of the surface boundary conditions dominate the effects of the phase boundary. I show that the calculations with complete continental coverage have the most significantly decoupled lower and upper mantle flows and substantial thermal and mechanical layering. Unlike the free-slip case where the surface heat flux decreases substantially with increasing magnitude of the Clapeyron slope, surface heat flux is shown to be almost independent of the Clapeyron slope for mixed boundary condition cases. Although very different when not layered, models with free and mixed surfaces have very similar planforms with very large aspect ratio flows when run with large magnitudes of the Clapeyron slope. I also calculate the critical boundary layer Rayleigh number as a measure of the thermal resistance of the surface boundary layer. My results show that the thermal resistance in the oceanic and the continental regions of the mixed cases are similar to fully free and no-slip cases, respectively. I find that, even for purely basally heated models, the mantle becomes significantly subadiabatic in the presence of partial continental coverage. This is due to the significant horizontal advection of heat that occurs with very large aspect ratio convection cells.