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L'augmentation exponentielle de la demande de bande passante pour les communications laisse présager une saturation prochaine de la capacité des réseaux de télécommunications qui devrait se matérialiser au cours de la prochaine décennie. En effet, la théorie de l’information prédit que les effets non linéaires dans les fibres monomodes limite la capacité de transmission de celles-ci et peu de gain à ce niveau peut être espéré des techniques traditionnelles de multiplexage développées et utilisées jusqu’à présent dans les systèmes à haut débit. La dimension spatiale du canal optique est proposée comme un nouveau degré de liberté qui peut être utilisé pour augmenter le nombre de canaux de transmission et, par conséquent, résoudre cette menace de «crise de capacité». Ainsi, inspirée par les techniques micro-ondes, la technique émergente appelée multiplexage spatial (SDM) est une technologie prometteuse pour la création de réseaux optiques de prochaine génération. Pour réaliser le SDM dans les liens de fibres optiques, il faut réexaminer tous les dispositifs intégrés, les équipements et les sous-systèmes. Parmi ces éléments, l'amplificateur optique SDM est critique, en particulier pour les systèmes de transmission pour les longues distances. En raison des excellentes caractéristiques de l'amplificateur à fibre dopée à l'erbium (EDFA) utilisé dans les systèmes actuels de pointe, l'EDFA est à nouveau un candidat de choix pour la mise en œuvre des amplificateurs SDM pratiques. Toutefois, étant donné que le SDM introduit une variation spatiale du champ dans le plan transversal de la fibre, les amplificateurs à fibre dopée à l'erbium spatialement intégrés (SIEDFA) nécessitent une conception soignée. Dans cette thèse, nous examinons tout d'abord les progrès récents du SDM, en particulier les amplificateurs optiques SDM. Ensuite, nous identifions et discutons les principaux enjeux des SIEDFA qui exigent un examen scientifique. Suite à cela, la théorie des EDFA est brièvement présentée et une modélisation numérique pouvant être utilisée pour simuler les SIEDFA est proposée. Sur la base d'un outil de simulation fait maison, nous proposons une nouvelle conception des profils de dopage annulaire des fibres à quelques-modes dopées à l'erbium (ED-FMF) et nous évaluons numériquement la performance d’un amplificateur à un étage, avec fibre à dopage annulaire, à ainsi qu’un amplificateur à double étage pour les communications sur des fibres ne comportant que quelques modes. Par la suite, nous concevons des fibres dopées à l'erbium avec une gaine annulaire et multi-cœurs (ED-MCF). Nous avons évalué numériquement le recouvrement de la pompe avec les multiples cœurs de ces amplificateurs. En plus de la conception, nous fabriquons et caractérisons une fibre multi-cœurs à quelques modes dopées à l'erbium. Nous réalisons la première démonstration des amplificateurs à fibre optique spatialement intégrés incorporant de telles fibres dopées. Enfin, nous présentons les conclusions ainsi que les perspectives de cette recherche. La recherche et le développement des SIEDFA offriront d'énormes avantages non seulement pour les systèmes de transmission future SDM, mais aussi pour les systèmes de transmission monomode sur des fibres standards à un cœur car ils permettent de remplacer plusieurs amplificateurs par un amplificateur intégré. / The exponential increase of communication bandwidth demand is giving rise to the so-called ‘capacity crunch’ expected to materialize within the next decade. Due to the nonlinear limit of the single mode fiber predicted by the information theory, all the state-of-the-art techniques which have so far been developed and utilized in order to extend the optical fiber communication capacity are exhausted. The spatial domain of the lightwave links is proposed as a new degree of freedom that can be employed to increase the number of transmission paths and, subsequently, overcome the looming ‘capacity crunch’. Therefore, the emerging technique named space-division multiplexing (SDM) is a promising candidate for creating next-generation optical networks. To realize SDM in optical fiber links, one needs to investigate novel spatially integrated devices, equipment, and subsystems. Among these elements, the SDM amplifier is a critical subsystem, in particular for the long-haul transmission system. Due to the excellent features of the erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) used in current state-of-the-art systems, the EDFA is again a prime candidate for implementing practical SDM amplifiers. However, since the SDM introduces a spatial variation of the field in the transverse plane of the optical fibers, spatially integrated erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (SIEDFA) require a careful design. In this thesis, we firstly review the recent progress in SDM, in particular, the SDM optical amplifiers. Next, we identify and discuss the key issues of SIEDFA that require scientific investigation. After that, the EDFA theory is briefly introduced and a corresponding numerical modeling that can be used for simulating the SIEDFA is proposed. Based on a home-made simulation tool, we propose a novel design of an annular based doping profile of few-mode erbium-doped fibers (FM-EDF) and numerically evaluate the performance of single stage as well as double-stage few-mode erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (FM-EDFA) based on such fibers. Afterward, we design annular-cladding erbium-doped multicore fibers (MC-EDF) and numerically evaluate the cladding pumped multicore erbium-doped fiber amplifier (MC-EDFA) based on these fibers as well. In addition to fiber design, we fabricate and characterize a multicore few-mode erbium-doped fiber (MC-FM-EDF), and perform the first demonstration of the spatially integrated optical fiber amplifiers incorporating such specialty doped fibers. Finally, we present the conclusions as well as the perspectives of this research. In general, the investigation and development of the SIEDFA will bring tremendous benefits not only for future SDM transmission systems but also for current state-of-the-art single-mode single-core transmission systems by replacing plural amplifiers by one integrated amplifier.

This research introduces tellurium oxide (TeO2) glass doped with optically active erbium ions (Er3+) as an active oxide cladding material for silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguides for realization of a silicon-based erbium-doped waveguide amplifier (EDWA) for integrated optics. Optical amplification of this nature is enabled by energy transitions, such as stimulated absorption and emission, within the shielded 4f shell of the rare-earth atomic structure caused by excitation from photons incident on the system. Er3+ ions are doped into the TeO2 film during deposition onto the SOI waveguides using a reactive magnetron co-sputtering system operated by McMaster’s Centre for Emerging Device Technologies (CEDT). Prior to fabrication, the waveguides are designed using photonic CAD software packages, for optimization of the modal behaviour in the device, and Matlab, for characterization of the optical gain performance through numerical analysis of the rate and propagation equations of the Er3+-based energy system. Post fabrication, the waveguide loss and gain of the coated devices are experimentally measured. The fabricated waveguide amplifier produces a peak signal enhancement of 3.84 dB at 1533 nm wavelength for a 1.7 cm-long waveguide device. High measured waveguide losses (> 10 dB/cm) produce a negative internal net gain per unit length. However, the demonstration and implementation of an active rare-earth doped cladding material on a silicon waveguide is successful, which is a major step in developing integrated optical amplifiers for conventional silicon photonics platforms. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

This thesis presents a novel technique named "Core Suction" for fabricating optical fiber preforms for manufacturing highly doped fibers (HDFs) for optical amplification (Raman effect based or Erbium fiber based). The technique involves drawing the molten non-conventional core glass material into the silica cladding tube to form the preform. The developed technique is simple, inexpensive and shows great potential for fabricating preforms of highly nonlinear non-conventional multi-component glasses as the core material. Preforms were made with various core glasses such as Schott SF6, Lead-Tellurium-Germanate, Lead-Tellurium-Germanate- Neodymium -Erbium and MM2 in silica cladding tubes and then pulled into fibers. The fabricated fibers were measured for refractive index profile, loss spectrum and spontaneous Raman spectra. Elemental analysis of the fiber samples was also performed using an electron microprobe. Erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) were setup using 30 cm, 5cm and 1 cm lengths of fabricated erbium doped fibers and their gain spectra measured. The distributed gain spectrum for an EDFA was also measured using an optical frequency domain reflectometery (OFDR) technique. Commercial dispersion compensated fiber (DCF) with very high GeO2 doping was used to setup a Raman amplifier and the gain spectrum measured. One of the needs of Raman amplification in optical fibers is to predict an accurate Raman gain, based on the fiber's refractive index profile. A method of predicting Raman gain in GeO2 doped fibers is presented and the predicted Raman gain values are compared with the measured ones in the same fibers. Raman gain issues like the dependence of the Raman gain on the GeO2 concentration, polarization dependence were taken into account for the gain calculations. An experimental setup for Raman gain measurements was made and measurement issues addressed. Polarization dependence of the Raman gain in one kilometer of polarization maintaining fiber was also measured. / Ph. D.

Les lasers à fibre émettant dans la région de 3.5 μm présentent un intérêt particulier pour les applications d’usinage des polymères et de spectroscopie des hydrocarbures en raison de la présence de bandes d’absorption de la liaison C-H. Bien que des sources émettant en régime continu sur cette plage spectrale aient été démontrées et optimisées au cours des dernières années, les sources impulsionnelles à 3.5 μm sont pratiquement inexistantes. Ce mémoire décrit le développement du premier laser fibré à commutation du gain émettant aux environs de 3.5 μm. Ce laser est basé sur le double pompage d’une fibre de fluorozirconate dopée à l’erbium pompée en continu à 976 nm et en régime pulsé à 1976 nm par un système fibré basé sur une fibre de silice dopée au thulium développé pour cet objectif. Un modèle théorique a été développé à l’aide de la méthode d’Euler qui permet de résoudre les populations et puissances le long de la cavité laser. Un laser à 3.55 μm a été réalisé produisant des impulsions nanosecondes à une cadence entre 12 et 20 kHz avec des puissances crêtes jusqu’à 272 W (9.31 μJ), ce qui est le record à ce jour pour un laser fibré à une telle longueur d’onde. Un quenching de l’émission laser a été observé pour un fort pompage à 1976 nm, limitant les performances et explicable par une absorption à l’état excité à cette longueur d’onde. Un système d’amplification d’impulsions a été réalisé et a démontré un gain maximal de 2.7 pour la transition laser. Le développement du système de pompage à 1976 nm est d’abord décrit et ses performances présentées. Le modèle numérique développé est ensuite présenté avec les principaux résultats obtenus. Finalement, l’oscillateur fibré à 3.552 μm est présenté et ses performances et limitations décrites. / Fiber lasers emitting in the 3.5 μm region are of interest for polymer processing and hydrocarbon spectroscopy applications due to the presence of C-H absorption bands. Although continuous wave sources emitting in this spectral range have been demonstrated throughout recent years, pulsed 3.5 μm are almost inexistent. This document presents the development of the first gain-switched fiber laser emitting around 3.5 μm. This laser is based on the dual-wavelength pumping of an erbium-doped fluorozirconate fiber by a continuous 976 nm laser diode and a 1976 nm pulsed system based on a thulium doped silica fiber that was developped for this purpose. A theoretical model was developped based on Euler’s method allowing to solve level populations and powers along the laser cavity. A 3.5 μm laser was then designed producing nanosecond pulses for repetition rates ranging from 12 to 20 kHz and peak powers up to 272 W (9.31 μJ), a record for a fiber laser at such a wavelength. Quenching of laser emission was observed for a high 1976 nm pumping rate, limiting performances and justified by an excited state absorption at this wavelength. A pulse amplification system was also built and characterized, yielding a maximum gain factor of 2.7. The development of the 1976 nm pulsed system is first described, and its performances analysed. The numerical model is then presented along the main simulation results. Finally, the 3.552 μm fiber oscillator is presented with its performances and limitations.

Les fibres à cœurs multiples sont une avenue intéressante pour répondre à la demande croissante des taux de transferts de données via la fibre optique. Pour que cette approche soit réalisable, plusieurs composants multicœurs seront nécessaires dont des amplificateurs pour permettre la transmission sur de longues distances. Le but de ce mémoire est de concevoir, fabriquer et tester un amplificateur à cœurs multiples dopés à l’erbium (MC-EDFA). D’abord, la théorie de base reliée à l’opération des amplificateurs à fibre dopées à l’erbium (EDFA) sera présentée et expliquée. Avec ces notions théoriques, un outil de simulation permettant de simuler les performances d’un EDFA a été développé et implémenté dans MATLAB. Pour établir un protocole expérimental et se familiariser avec les fibres dopées à l’erbium, un amplificateur standard à un seul cœur, dont les paramètres ont été définis à l’aide du simulateur, a été fabriqué avant de procéder à la fabrication de l’amplificateur à cœurs multiples. Une caractérisation complète de cet amplificateur a été faite. Les résultats de cette caractérisation seront présentés et comparés à des simulations pour valider du même coup l’outil de simulation. Le mémoire se poursuivra par la présentation du design et de la fabrication d’un MC-EDFA à sept cœurs. Les paramètres des cœurs sont les mêmes que ceux de l’EDFA caractérisé auparavant. Donc, la caractérisation de l’EDFA aura aussi servi à définir les paramètres des cœurs du MC-EDFA. L’approche utilisée pour multiplexer les signaux dans la fibre, qui a été un obstacle majeur à la prise de données expérimentales, sera ensuite présentée. Pour finir, les mesures expérimentales prises sur les sept cœurs seront présentées pour évaluer les performances du MC-EDFA. Bien que le MC-EDFA possède une double gaine permettant d’injecter la pompe dans la gaine interne, toutes les données expérimentales ont été prises avec la pompe injectée directement dans chaque cœur. Des difficultés techniques, qui seront expliquées dans le dernier chapitre, ont rendu impossible la prise de mesures avec un schéma de pompage dans la gaine.

Ce travail de thèse est dédié à l'étude des transitions radiatives dans les matériaux de nitrure et d'oxyde de silicium dopés aux ions de terres rares (Er3+, Nd3+). La caractérisation optique des films minces élaborés par évaporation thermique est basée sur la spectroscopie de photoluminescence. Les études menées s'inscrivent dans la recherche de processus d'excitation indirecte des ions Er3+ et Nd3+ dans des matrices à base de silicium. Dans les nitrures et oxynitrures de silicium, un processus de transfert d'énergie permettant l'excitation indirecte des ions Er3+ est mis en évidence. Pour les couches minces amorphes, le couplage est attribué à des états électroniques localisés dans la bande interdite de la matrice. Pour les films recuits à haute température, les nanocristaux de silicium (nc-Si) jouent un rôle majeur dans l'excitation indirecte de l'erbium. Dans les matrices d'oxyde de silicium, l'existence de processus d'excitations directe et indirecte des ions Nd3+ est démontrée. Pour les films amorphes, l'excitation indirecte du Nd se fait via des états électroniques localisés dans la bande interdite de la matrice. Pour les films recuits au-delà de 1000 °C, les nc-Si jouent le rôle de sensibilisateurs pour les ions Nd3+. Les résultats suggèrent que l'excitation indirecte des ions Nd3+ grâce aux états localisés dans la bande interdite de la matrice pourrait être plus efficace que l'excitation via les nc-Si / This thesis is devoted to the study of radiative transitions in rare-earth (Er, Nd) doped silicon oxide and silicon nitride thin films. The optical characterization of thin films prepared by thermal evaporation is based on photoluminescence spectroscopy. In this work, we investigate indirect excitation processes of Er3+ and Nd3+ ions in silicon based materials. In silicon nitride and silicon oxinitride, an energy transfer leading to the indirect excitation of Er3+ ions is demonstrated. For amorphous samples, the sensitization of Er3+ ions is attributed to localized electronic states in the matrix bandgap. For samples annealed at high temperature, silicon nanocrystals play a major role in the indirect excitation of erbium. In silicon oxide thin films, we evidences that both direct and indirect excitation processes of Nd3+ ions occur. For amorphous samples, indirect excitation occurs thanks to localized electronic states in the matrix bandgap. For samples annealed at temperatures above 1000 °C, silicon nanocrystals are sensitizers of Nd3+ ions. Results suggest that indirect excitation thank to localized states in the matrix bandgap could be more efficient than indirect excitation thanks to silicon nanocrystals

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo estudar a produção e caracterização de filmes finos do tipo GeO2-PbO (GP) produzidos por sputtering-RF com e sem nanopartículas (INPS) metálicas e codopados com íons de Er³+/Yb³+ para a produção de amplificadores ópticos. A incorporação dos íons de terras-raras (TR) foi verificada a partir dos espectros de emissão. Estudos relacionados ao tempo de decaimento radiativo do Er³+ também foram conduzidos. A susceptibilidade óptica não-linear de terceira ordem é reportada em 532 e 800nm. Os valores de índice de refração e absorção não-linear na presença de NPs metálicas é mais do que uma ordem de grandeza superior aos mesmos filmes sem as NPs metálicas. A produção de guias de onda do tipo rib e do tipo pedestal baseados nos filmes GP foi realizada a partir de litografia óptica seguida por processo de corrosão por plasma. A influência dos parâmetros dos processos usados em função das características dos guias também é reportada. Os guias ópticos foram caracterizados por Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), Microscopia de Força Atômica (AFM) e por medidas de perdas de propagação e ganho óptico. As perdas por propagação mínimas observadas foram de ~1,0dB/cm nos guias rib e de ~1,5dB/cm para os guias pedestal em 1050 nm. O ganho óptico nos guias de onda amplificadores codopados com Er³+/Yb³+ também foram obtidos. Ganhos de até 3,0dB/cm em 1530nm, sob bombeamento em 980nm foi obtido para os guias rib e de 4,0dB/cm para os guias tipo pedestal. A influência de um filme nanoestruturado de ouro depositado sobre os guias de onda foi avaliada. Aumentos na luminescência dos íons de Er³+, sob bombeamento em 980nm, de 260% na região do visível e de ~30% na região do infravermelho foram observados. O ganho óptico apresentado pelos guias rib também sofreu um aumento máximo de ~100% na presença de NPs metálicas. Guias de onda fabricados a partir da escrita por laser de femtosegundos também são estudadas em um vidro de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 dopadas com Er2O3. A mudança permanente do índice de refração foi obtida após o processo de escrita e guias de onda foram obtidas sob diferentes energias de pulso do laser e velocidades de varredura. O valor mínimo de perda por propagação foi de 4,8dB/cm em 1535nm. O valor de ganho óptico máximo apresentado foi de 2,7 dB/cm em 1535nm. Os resultados apresentados demonstram que guias de onda baseadas em germanatos, com ou sem NPs metálicas, são promissoras para aplicações em dispositivos fotônicos. / This work aims to study the production and characterization of GeO2-PbO (GP) thin films produced by RF-sputtering with and without metallic nanoparticles (NPs) and codoped with Er³+/Yb³+ ions for the production of optical amplifiers. The incorporation of the rare-earth ions was verified from the emission spectra. Studies related to the Er³+ radiative decay time were also performed. The third order optical nonlinear susceptibility at 532 and 800nm is reported. The nonlinear refractive index and absorption values in the presence of metallic NPs is more than one order of magnitude higher than in the films without metallic NPs. Rib and pedestal waveguides were obtained from GP thin films with optical lithography followed by reactive ion etching process. The influence of the process parameters on the waveguides characteristics is also reported. Waveguides were characterized with Scanning Electron Microscope, Atomic Force Microscope and by propagation loss and optical gain measurements. Minimum observed losses were ~1.0dB/cm for rib waveguides and ~1.5dB/cm for pedestal waveguides. Optical gain in the codoped Er³+/Yb³+ waveguide amplifiers was also obtained. The maximum optical gain in 1530nm, under 980nm pumping was 3.0dB/cm for rib waveguides and 4.0dB/cm for pedestal waveguides. The influence of a nanostructured gold thin film deposited over the waveguides was evaluated. Er³+ ions luminescence enhancement of 260% in the visible region and ~30% in the infrared region was observed, under 980 nm pumping. Optical gain was also ~100% higher in rib waveguides in the presence of gold thin film. Waveguides fabricated from direct fs laser writing are also studied, in an Er2O3 doped GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 glass. Permanent refractive index change was obtained and waveguides were formed under different laser pulse energies and scan velocities. The minimum value of propagation loss was 4.8dB/cm at 1535nm. The sample showed a maximum optical amplification of 2.7dB/cm at 1535nm. The present results demonstrate that germanate waveguides, with or without metallic NPs are promising for applications in photonic devices.

O confinamento da luz em escala nanométrica, em especial para estruturas metálicas, é conferido graças à ação coletiva dos elétrons livres desses materiais que ao entrarem em ressonância com a frequência da radiação incidente geram campos intensos o suficiente para permitir que uma parcela da luz atravesse as cavidades que formam as estruturas, desafiando os limites clássicos da óptica impostos pela teoria escalar da difração. Designa-se a tal ação coletiva dos elétrons na literatura como plasmons polaritons de superfície, ou SPP da sigla em inglês para Surface Plasmon Polariton, conceito há muito estudado em Física do Estado Sólido. Porém, somente a algumas décadas com o domínio sobre a fabricação de estruturas em escala nanométrica, tornou-se possível a análise experimental e a contribuição de SPP na observação de fenômenos em nano-óptica. A ressonância de plasmons em nanoestruturas confere considerável sensibilidade ao índice de refração dos meios próximos a elas, o que abre mais um canal para estudos no campo da interação entre radiação-matéria. Dentre eles há interação de plasmons com íons de terras-raras (ITR). Estes últimos por apresentarem bandas de absorção estreitas e bem definidas, são excelentes opções como elementos na análise da interação destes com os SPPs gerados nas nanoestruturas. Uma maneira de estabelecer o contato direto entre o campo plasmônico e os ITRs é incorpora-los ao substrato no qual o filme metálico onde as nanoestruturas são fabricadas é depositado. Vidros óxidos à base de Telúrio e Germânio reúnem condições favoráveis para esse propósito, por terem alta solubilidade às terras-raras, janela de transparência relativamente larga (0,4 - 5μm) podendo ser analisados desde o visível até o infravermelho e baixa energia de fônon. O presente trabalho consistiu no esforço de criar uma plataforma para estudo direto de interações SPP com o ITR a partir da nano fabricação via técnica de feixe de íons e medir a luz emitida por processo de conversão ascendente do Érbio diretamente pela nanoestrutura devido ao decaimento do íon em SPP e na consequente remissão através da transmissão óptica extraordinária (TOE). A partir de tais medidas há fortes evidências de que a radiação emitida pelo Érbio apresenta a mesma polarização do campo plasmônico originado nas nanoestruturas. / The confinement of light at the nanoscale, especially for metallic structures is achieved due the collective action of free electrons from the material that resonate with the frequency of the incident radiation, generating enhanced fields enough to allow a portion of the light to cross the cavities that form such structures, challenging the classical limits of optics imposed by the scalar diffraction theory. Such collective action of the electrons is known in the literature as surface plasmon polariton (SPP), a concept which has already been studied in Solid State Physics, but only a few decades ago, with the development of fabrication of nanoscale structures has enabled the experimental analysis and the contribution due SPP on the observation of nanoptics phenomena. The plasmon resonance from nanostructures offers considerable sensitivity to the refractive index from the media that surround them, which opens another topic in matter-radiation interaction. There are interactions of plasmons with rare earth ions (REI). The latter class of emitters, presents narrow and well-defined absorption bands, which make them excellent options as probes to the analysis of interaction with the SPPs generated in the nanostructures. To establish direct contact between the plasmonic field and the REIs consists in embedding them into the substrate for the metallic thin film where the structures are assembled. Tellurium and Germanium oxide based glasses gather the conditions for this purpose, because they present high solubility to rare earths, a relatively wide transparency window (0.4 - 5 μm), which enables spectral analysis from visible to infrared, and low phonon energy. The present work consisted in the effort to create a direct platform to study the SPP interactions with the REI from the milling of the samples by ion beam technique; to measure the light emitted from the Erbium\'s upconversion process directly through the nanostructure due the ion decay to SPP and in the consequent remission by extraordinary optical transmission (EOT). From such measurements there are strong evidences that the radiation emitted by Erbium ions presents the same polarization from the plasmonic field originated in nanostructures.