Le fort développement actuel des systèmes électroniques embarqués nous conduit à relever le défi de leur fiabilisation, ceci d’autant plus que des organes de sécurité sont souvent concernés et que ces systèmes opèrent dans des conditions environnementales difficiles avec une exigence de réduction de coût drastique. Ce qui caractérise le mieux l’évolution récente de ces systèmes électroniques embarqués c’est une forte intégration qui conduit à réduire leur encombrement et leur poids tout en augmentant la puissance électrique convertie. Il en résulte automatiquement une augmentation de la densité de puissance dissipée et l’étude de leur comportement électrothermique prend, dans ces conditions, une importance fondamentale. Le présent travail concerne le développement d’outils précis de modélisation électrothermique qui permettent d’appréhender l’impact de la technologie choisie (conception, connectiques, matériaux …) sur les phénomènes causés par les défauts qui apparaissent avec le vieillissement. Des règles de robustesse spécifiques à chaque technologie pourront être édictées à l’aide de simulations 3D distribuées présentées dans le mémoire. Dans un premier temps la modélisation électrothermique compacte a été abordée. Ensuite, en se limitant aux modules MOS de puissance, une première classe de problèmes caractérisée par l’absence de commutation peut être traitée en ayant recours à une modélisation électrothermique par éléments finis qui considère que le composant est constitué par un ensemble de zones de résistivités électriques et de conductivités thermiques différentes. Une tentative a été faite en vue d’étendre l’étude électrothermique aux classes de problèmes mettant en œuvre des MOS de puissance fonctionnant en régime de commutation. Le modèle électrique distribué doit alors être capable de calculer et de répartir les pertes totales (état passant, état bloqué et commutation) pour un régime de commutation rapide. Enfin, un soin particulier a été accordé à l’étude du fonctionnement en avalanche, une méthode basée sur l’expérimentation et l’utilisation d’un modèle électrothermique simple afin d’estimer la température de jonction d’un MOSFET de puissance lors de son fonctionnement en régime d’avalanche de courte durée a été développée. Pour conclure, on a démontré qu’il n’existe pas une réponse unique en termes de modélisation électrothermique et que chaque méthode vise à résoudre une classe spécifique de problèmes / The strong current development of embedded electronic systems leads us to the challenge of their reliability, all the more so as the security organs are often involved and that these systems operate in harsh environmental conditions with a requirement to reduce cost drastically. What best characterizes the recent evolution of the embedded electronic systems is a strong integration that leads to reduce their size and weight while increasing the electrical power converted. This automatically increases the power density dissipated and so the study of their electro-thermal behavior becomes of fundamental importance. The present work concerns the development of specific tools that allow electro-thermal modeling to understand the impact of the chosen technology (design, connections, materials ...) on the phenomena caused by defects that occur with ageing. Robustness rules specific to each technology may be adopted using 3D simulations presented in the report. At first, compact electro-thermal modeling was discussed. Second, considering power MOS modules which operate in a non-switching mode, a first class of problems can be treated by using a finite element electro-thermal modeling that assumes that the components act as a set of zones whose electrical and thermal conductivities are different. An attempt was made to extend the electro-thermal study to classes of problems where power MOSFETs are switching. Distributed electrical models must then be able to calculate and allocate total losses (on-state, off-state and switching) for a fast switching rate. Finally, particular attention has been given to the study of avalanche mode operation; a method based on experimentation and the use of a simple electro-thermal model to estimate the junction temperature of a power MOSFET when operating in short duration avalanche mode has been developed. To conclude, we have demonstrated that there is no single answer in terms of electro-thermal modeling and each method developed aims to solve a specific class of problems

In this research a state-of-the-art micro-thermal conductivity detector is developed based on MEMS technology. Its efficient design include a miniaturized 100×2 µm bridge from doped polysilicon, suspended 10 µm away from the single crystalline silicon substrate through a thermally grown silicon dioxide sacrificial layer. The microbridge is covered by 200 nm silicon nitride layer to provide more life time. Analytical models were developed that describe the relationship between the sensor response and ambient gas material properties. To obtain local temperature distribution and accurate predictions of the sensor response, a computational three dimensional simulation based on real geometry and minimal simplifications was prepared. It was able to handle steady-state and transient state, include multiple physics such as flow, heat transfer, electrical current and thermal stresses. Two new methods of measurement for micro TCD were developed; a time resolved method based on transient response of the detector to a step current pulse was introduced that correlates time constant of the response to the concentration of gas mixture. The other method is based on AC excitation of the micro detector; the amplitude and phase of the third harmonic of the resulting output signal is related to gas composition. Finally, the developed micro-sensor was packaged and tested in a GC system and was compared against conventional and complex FID for the detection of a mixture of VOCs. Moreover compact electronics and telemetry modules were developed that allow for highly portable applications including microGC utilization in the field.

The temperature dependent electrical characteristics of silicon carbide power transistors – 4H-SiC metal semiconductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs) and 4H-SiC bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) have been investigated through simulation and experimental approaches. Junction temperatures and temperature distributions in devices under large power densities have been estimated. The DC and RF performance of 4H-SiC RF Power MESFETs have been studied through two-dimensional electro-thermal simulations using commercial software MEDICI and ISE. The simulated characteristics of the transistors were compared with the measurement results. Performance degradation of transistors under self-heating and high operating temperatures have been analyzed in terms of gate and drain characteristics, power density, high frequency current gain and power gain. 3D thermal simulations have been performed for single and multi-finger MESFETs and the simulated junction temperatures and temperature profiles were compared with the results from electro-thermal simulations. The reduction in drain current caused by self-heating was found to be more prominent for transistors with more fingers and it imposes a limitation on both the output power and the power density (in W/mm) of multi-fingered large area devices. Thermal issues for design of high power multi-fingered SiC MESFETs were also investigated. A couple of useful ways to reduce the self-heating effects were discussed. Trap-induced performance instabilities of the devices were analyzed by carrying out DC, transient, and pulse measurements at room and elevated temperatures. Electrical characteristics of 4H-SiC BJTs have been measured. A reduction in current gain at elevated temperatures was observed. Based on the collector current-voltage diagram measured at three different ambient temperatures the junction temperature was extracted using the assumption that the current gain only depends on the temperature. Temperature measurements have been carried out for SiC BJTs. Thermal images of a device under operation were recorded using an infrared camera. 3D thermal simulations were conducted using FEMLAB. Both the simulations and the measurement showed a significant temperature increase in the vicinity of the device when operated at high power densities, thus causing the decrease of the DC current gain. The junction temperatures obtained from the thermal imaging, simulation and extraction agree well.

The ultra-short gate (LG < 20 nm) CMOS components (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) face thermal limitations due to significant local heating induced by phonon emission by hot carriers in active regions of reduced size. This phenomenon, called self-heating effect, is identified as one of the most critical for the continuous increase in the integration density of circuits. This is especially crucial in SOI technology (silicon on insulator), where the presence of the buried insulator hinders the dissipation of heat.At the nanoscale, the theoretical study of these heating phenomena, which cannot be led using the macroscopic models (heat diffusion coefficient), requires a detailed microscopic description of heat transfers that are locally non-equilibrium. It is therefore appropriate to model, not only the electron transport and the phonon generation, but also the phonon transport and the phonon-phonon and electron-phonon interactions. The formalism of the Boltzmann transport equation (BTE) is very suitable to study this problem. In fact, it is widely used for years to study the transport of charged particles in semiconductor components. This formalism is much less standard to study the transport of phonons. One of the problems of this work concerns the coupling of the phonon BTE with the electron transport.In this context, wse have developed an algorithm to calculate the transport of phonons by the direct solution of the phonon BTE. This algorithm of phonon transport was coupled with the electron transport simulated by the simulator "MONACO" based on a statistical (Monte Carlo) solution of the BTE. Finally, this new electro-thermal simulator was used to study the self-heating effects in nano-transistors. The main interest of this work is to provide an analysis of electro-thermal transport beyond a macroscopic approach (Fourier formalism for thermal transport and the drift-diffusion approach for electric current, respectively). Indeed, it provides access to the distributions of phonons in the device for each phonon mode. In particular, the simulator provides a better understanding of the hot electron effects at the hot spots and of the electron relaxation in the access.

<p>The temperature dependent electrical characteristics of silicon carbide power transistors – 4H-SiC metal semiconductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs) and 4H-SiC bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) have been investigated through simulation and experimental approaches. Junction temperatures and temperature distributions in devices under large power densities have been estimated. </p><p>The DC and RF performance of 4H-SiC RF Power MESFETs have been studied through two-dimensional electro-thermal simulations using commercial software MEDICI and ISE. The simulated characteristics of the transistors were compared with the measurement results. Performance degradation of transistors under self-heating and high operating temperatures have been analyzed in terms of gate and drain characteristics, power density, high frequency current gain and power gain. 3D thermal simulations have been performed for single and multi-finger MESFETs and the simulated junction temperatures and temperature profiles were compared with the results from electro-thermal simulations. The reduction in drain current caused by self-heating was found to be more prominent for transistors with more fingers and it imposes a limitation on both the output power and the power density (in W/mm) of multi-fingered large area devices. Thermal issues for design of high power multi-fingered SiC MESFETs were also investigated. A couple of useful ways to reduce the self-heating effects were discussed. Trap-induced performance instabilities of the devices were analyzed by carrying out DC, transient, and pulse measurements at room and elevated temperatures. </p><p>Electrical characteristics of 4H-SiC BJTs have been measured. A reduction in current gain at elevated temperatures was observed. Based on the collector current-voltage diagram measured at three different ambient temperatures the junction temperature was extracted using the assumption that the current gain only depends on the temperature. Temperature measurements have been carried out for SiC BJTs. Thermal images of a device under operation were recorded using an infrared camera. 3D thermal simulations were conducted using FEMLAB. Both the simulations and the measurement showed a significant temperature increase in the vicinity of the device when operated at high power densities, thus causing the decrease of the DC current gain. The junction temperatures obtained from the thermal imaging, simulation and extraction agree well. </p>

The trend of future wind farms moving further offshore requires much higher reliability for each wind turbine in order to reduce maintenance cost. The drive-train system and power electronic converter system have been identified as critical sub-assemblies that are subject to higher failure rates than the other sub-assemblies in a wind turbine. Modern condition monitoring techniques may help schedule the maintenance and reduce downtime. However, when it comes to offshore wind turbines, it is more crucial to reduce the failure rates (or reduce the stresses) for the wind turbines during operation since the harsh weather and a frequently inaccessible environment will dramatically reduce their availability once a failure happens. This research examines the mechanical, electrical and thermal stresses in the sub-assemblies of a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine and how to reduce them by improved control strategies. The DFIG control system (the rotor-side and the grid-side converter control) as well as the wind turbine control system are well established. The interactions of these control systems have been investigated. This research examines several further strategies to reduce the mechanical and electrical stresses. The control system's coordination with the protection schemes (crowbar and dc-chopper) during a grid fault is presented as well. An electro-thermal model of the power converter has been developed to integrate with the DFIG wind turbine model, for the evaluation of the thermal stresses under different operating states and control schemes. The main contributions of this thesis are twofold. A first contribution is made by providing all the control loops with well-tuned controllers in a more integrated methodology. The dynamics of these controllers are determined from their mathematical models to minimize the interference between different control-loops and also to reduce the electrical transients. This thesis proposes a coordination strategy for the damping control, pitch control and crowbar protection which significantly reduces the mechanical oscillations. On the other hand, an integrated model of the wind turbine and converter electro-thermal system is established that can illustrate the performance integration with different control strategies.

Une forte exigence de robustesse s’est imposée dans tous les domaines d’application des composants de puissance. Dans ce cadre très contraint, seule une analyse fine des phénomènes liés directement ou indirectement aux défaillances peut garantir une maîtrise de la fiabilité des fonctions assurées par les nouveaux composants de puissance. Cependant, ces phénomènes impliquent des couplages entre des effets électriques, thermiques et mécaniques, rendant leur étude très complexe. Le recours à la modélisation multi-physique bien adaptée s’avère alors déterminant. Dans ce mémoire de thèse, nous proposons une méthodologie de modélisation électrique prenant en compte les effets de la température sur les phénomènes localisés qui initient une défaillance souvent fatale. En prévision de la simulation électrothermique couplée impliquant des transistors MOS de puissance, un modèle électrique thermosensible de ce composant et de sa diode structurelle a été développé. Corrélativement un ensemble de bancs expérimentaux a été mis en œuvre pour l’extraction des paramètres et pour la validation du modèle. Une attention particulière a été accordée à l’étude des phénomènes parasites qui pourraient survenir de manière très localisée suite à une répartition inhomogène de la température et à l’apparition de points chauds. Ainsi les fonctionnements limites en avalanche, avec le déclenchement du transistor bipolaire parasite et de son retournement ont été modélisés. Des bancs spécifiques pour la validation du modèle pour les régimes extrêmes ont été utilisés en prenant des précautions liées à la haute température. Enfin, Le modèle électrique thermosensible complet développé a été utilisé par la société Epsilon ingénierie pour faire des simulations électrothermiques du MOS de puissance en mode d’avalanche en adaptant le logiciel Epsilon-R3D / Strong demand for robustness has emerged in all areas of application of power components.Only a detailed analysis of phenomena related directly or indirectly to failures can ensure thereliability of the functions of the new power components. However, these phenomena involvethe coupling between electrical effects, thermal and mechanical, making their study verycomplex. The use of multi-physics modeling is well suited when determining. In this thesis,we propose a methodology for electrical modeling taking into account the effects of temperatureon the localized phenomena that initiate failure is often fatal. In preparation for thecoupled electro-thermal simulation involving MOS power transistors, an electric thermosensitivemodel of the MOS and its body diode has been developed. Correspondingly a set ofexperimental studies was implemented to extract the parameters and model validation. Particularattention was paid to the study of interference phenomena that could occur in a localizedresponse to an inhomogeneous distribution of temperature and hot spots. Thus the workingslimits avalanche, with the outbreak of parasitic bipolar transistor (snapback) and its reversalwere modeled. Benches specific validations of the model for harsh switching conditions wereused by taking precautions related to high temperature. Finally, the complete thermal electricmodel developed was used by the company “EPSILON Ingénierie” for electro-thermal simulationof power MOS mode Avalanche Software adapting Epsilon-R3D.

<p>Ice forming on wind turbine blades can cause loading imbalance and reduce power production of the turbine. Heating systems that prevent or remove ice on wind turbine blades are one of the more promising solutions to mitigate ice accretion. Methods to apply heat include direct application through electro-thermal resistance heaters mounted on the external surface of the blade or by indirect heating by forcing hot air through a channel along the leading edge of the blade. Heating systems for aircraft blades have become standardized and in some cases compulsory on aircraft to preserve human life; however, the technology is not directly transferable to the blades on wind turbines. The relative power of the anti-icing or de-icing system is critical to providing a cost benefit of having the system.</p> <p>This thesis investigates the heat transfer involved for electro-thermal and hot air heating strategies. An appropriate range of operating conditions and blade constructions are considered in order to characterize the effectiveness of both systems. A numerical model is developed to solve the one dimensional, differential heat transfer equations. The heater power required to prevent ice accumulation (anti-icing) on wind turbine blades is determined for electro-thermal heating. Anti-icing with hot air is shown to be unrealistic for a practical range of operating conditions.</p> <p>The low conductivity of the blade core creates a bottleneck for the de-icing system. It is shown that alternative core materials (Nomex/aluminum honeycomb) can reduce this effect. Electro-thermal and hot air de-icing each have their advantages and cannot be equally compared. In this thesis the suitability of each system has been analysed for a range of operating conditions and wind turbine constructions; the designer can then implement the most suitable strategy for their individual application.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Les travaux de cette thèse s’inscrivent dans un projet de grande envergure, le projet 3D-IDEAS, financé par l’ANR. Le but de ce projet est d’établir la chaîne complète de l’intégration de circuits en technologie 3D. Les densités de puissance dans ces circuits sont telles que les problèmes liés à la température – électromigration, désappariement des courants et tensions de polarisation, etc. – sont susceptibles de remettre en cause la conception du circuit. Le coût élevé de la fabrication de ces circuits oblige le concepteur à valider le comportement électrothermique des circuits préalablement à l’envoi en fabrication. Pour répondre à ce besoin, un simulateur électrothermique précis et fiable doit être à disposition. En outre, en raison de la complexité extrême de ces circuits, il est judicieux que ce simulateur soit compatible avec l’approche de modélisation haut niveau. L’objectif de cette thèse est de développer un tel simulateur. La solution proposée intègre ce simulateur dans un environnement de développement CAO pour circuit intégré standard, Cadence®. La contrainte sur la précision des résultats nous a amené à développer une nouvelle méthodologie spécifique à la modélisation électrothermique haut-niveau. Ce manuscrit comporte deux grandes parties. Dans la première, la démarche adoptée pour concevoir le simulateur est détaillée. Ensuite, dans la seconde partie, le fonctionnement du simulateur ainsi que la méthode de modélisation haut-niveau mise en place sont présentées, puis validées. / The work of this thesis is part of a larger project, the project 3D-IDEAS, funded by the ANR. The purpose of this project is to establish the complete chain of integrated circuits built upon 3D technology. Power densities in these circuits are exacerbated, thus problems related to temperature, such as electromigration, mismatch of bias currents and voltages, etc., arise and might have critical effects on the circuit behavior. The high cost of these circuits requires the designer to validate the electro-thermal behavior of circuits prior to manufacturing. To meet this need, an accurate and reliable electro-thermal simulator should be available. Moreover, due to the extreme complexity of these circuits, it is wise for such a simulator to be compliant with high level modeling approach. The objective of this thesis is to develop such a simulator. The proposed solution integrates the simulator in the broadly used CAD environment for integrated circuits Cadence®. The need of accurate results led us to develop a new methodology specific to high level electro-thermal modeling. This manuscript is split in two major parts. In the first one, the approach to implement the simulator is detailed. Then, in the second part, the operation principle of the simulator and the modeling method implementation are detailed and validated.

Le développement de la technologie des composants CMOS ultimes à grille ultra-courte (L < 20 nm) se heurte à de nombreuses difficultés technologiques, mais également à des limites thermiques qui perturbent notablement les règles de mise à l'échelle communément employées jusqu'à présent. Les fortes densités de courant obtenues dans des zones actives aussi réduites génèrent un important échauffement local (par effet Joule), lié à l'émission de phonons par les porteurs chauds, qui peut conduire à des réductions très sensibles des performances, voire à des défaillances. Ce phénomène est identifié comme un des plus critiques pour la poursuite de l'augmentation de la densité d'intégration des circuits. Cela est particulièrement crucial dans les technologies SOI (silicium sur isolant), où la présence de l'isolant enterré constitue un frein à l'évacuation de la chaleur. À l'échelle nanométrique, l'étude théorique de ces phénomènes d'échauffement n'est plus possible par des modèles macroscopiques (coefficient de diffusion de la chaleur) mais nécessite une description microscopique détaillée des transferts de chaleur qui sont localement hors d’équilibre. Il s'agit donc de modéliser de façon appropriée, non seulement le transport électronique et la génération de phonons, mais aussi le transport de phonons hors équilibre et les interactions phonons-phonons et électrons-phonons.Le formalisme de l’équation de transport de Boltzmann (BTE) est très bien adapté à l'étude de ce problème. En effet, il est largement utilisé depuis des années pour l'étude du transport des particules chargées dans les composants semi-conducteurs. Ce formalisme est beaucoup moins standard pour étudier le transport des phonons. Une des problématiques de ce travail concerne le couplage de la résolution de la BTE des phonons avec celle des électrons.Ce travail de thèse a développé un algorithme de calcul du transport de phonons par résolution directe de la BTE des phonons. Cet algorithme de transport de phonon a été couplé au transport électronique simulé grâce au logiciel "MONACO" basé sur une résolution statistique (ou Monte Carlo) de la BTE. Finalement, ce nouveau simulateur électrothermique a été utilisé pour étudier les effets d’auto échauffement dans des nano-transistors. L’intérêt principal de ces travaux est de permettre une analyse du transport electro-thermique au-delà d’une approche macroscopique (respectivement formalisme de Fourier pour la thermique et dérive-diffusion pour le courant). En effet, il donne accès aux distributions de phonons dans le dispositif et pour chaque mode de phonon. En particulier, ce simulateur apporte une meilleure compréhension des effets des électrons chauds sur les points chauds et leur relaxation dans les accès. / The ultra-short gate (LG < 20 nm) CMOS components (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) face thermal limitations due to significant local heating induced by phonon emission by hot carriers in active regions of reduced size. This phenomenon, called self-heating effect, is identified as one of the most critical for the continuous increase in the integration density of circuits. This is especially crucial in SOI technology (silicon on insulator), where the presence of the buried insulator hinders the dissipation of heat.At the nanoscale, the theoretical study of these heating phenomena, which cannot be led using the macroscopic models (heat diffusion coefficient), requires a detailed microscopic description of heat transfers that are locally non-equilibrium. It is therefore appropriate to model, not only the electron transport and the phonon generation, but also the phonon transport and the phonon-phonon and electron-phonon interactions. The formalism of the Boltzmann transport equation (BTE) is very suitable to study this problem. In fact, it is widely used for years to study the transport of charged particles in semiconductor components. This formalism is much less standard to study the transport of phonons. One of the problems of this work concerns the coupling of the phonon BTE with the electron transport.In this context, wse have developed an algorithm to calculate the transport of phonons by the direct solution of the phonon BTE. This algorithm of phonon transport was coupled with the electron transport simulated by the simulator "MONACO" based on a statistical (Monte Carlo) solution of the BTE. Finally, this new electro-thermal simulator was used to study the self-heating effects in nano-transistors. The main interest of this work is to provide an analysis of electro-thermal transport beyond a macroscopic approach (Fourier formalism for thermal transport and the drift-diffusion approach for electric current, respectively). Indeed, it provides access to the distributions of phonons in the device for each phonon mode. In particular, the simulator provides a better understanding of the hot electron effects at the hot spots and of the electron relaxation in the access.