Orientador: Vitor Baranauskas / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-05T07:21:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Iannini_RobertoFonseca_M.pdf: 1222857 bytes, checksum: 41c44a25bef2f1656de6659dff1c5734 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Resumo: O progresso da pesquisa científica depende da qualidade e da disponibilidade de instrumentos confiáveis e de alta precisão, necessários para a exploração quantitativa de novos fenômenos, possibilitando a construção de modelos mais avançados e mais sofisticados. Um dos fenômenos que tem despertado grande interesse é a emissão de elétrons da superfície de catodos frios para o vácuo, sob a ação de campos elétricos externos. Para o estudo deste fenômeno, é necessária a medida de pequenas correntes em amostras que estão sob tensões elétricas relativamente altas. Nesta tese contribuímos com o projeto e construção de um medidor de corrente capaz de operar de maneira integrada à câmara de vácuo onde são analisadas as propriedades de emissão de nanotubos ou de materiais nanoestruturados. Foram desenvolvidos integralmente o hardware, firmware e software, com vistas à integração futura com outros instrumentos de controle e análise / Abstract: The progress of scientific research depends of the quality and availability of reliable and high precision instruments, which are necessary for measurement of new phenomena, making possible the construction of advanced and sophisticated models. One phenomenon that has being studied is the field emission of electrons from cold cathodes in vacuum, under external electrical field influence. In order to perform this study, it is necessary to measure small electrical currents with the surface sample under high voltage. In this thesis, we have contributed with the project and construction of a electric current meter able to operate in a vacuum chamber environment where the field emission properties of sample materials (nanotubes or nanostructures) are analyzed. Both hardware, firmware and software were developed looking forward to future integration of the measurement and control equipments / Mestrado / Instrumentação e Controle / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

Orientador: Fernando Alvarez / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Fisica Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-04T02:14:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DroppaJunior_Roosevelt_D.pdf: 3953569 bytes, checksum: 5a007bee5cd4c884e234f80f9cc54757 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004 / Resumo: A proposta deste trabalho é sintetizar e caracterizar química e estruturalmente nanotubos e fulerenos contendo nitrogênio. A síntese tanto das amostras de nanotubos como das amostras de fulerenos foi feita pela técnica de arco elétrico em atmosferas contendo nitrogênio gasoso. A análise das amostras de nanotubos nitrogenados por microscopia eletrônica mostra que a concentração de nitrogênio gasoso durante a síntese influencia na incorporação de átomos desse elemento por estruturas de carbono que dão origem aos nanotubos. Estes, quando contêm átomos de nitrogênio na sua composição, têm forma de bambu, diferentemente dos nanotubos gerados na ausência de nitrogênio. Análises por Espectroscopia de Elétrons Fotoemitidos (XPS) indicam que amostras de nanotubos assim produzidas de fato contêm nitrogênio e que parte dos átomos desse elemento estão ligados substitucionalmente em redes grafíticas. Dados de Espectroscopia de Elétrons Inelasticamente Espalhados (EELS) mostram que os átomos de nitrogênio se concentram nas paredes dos nanotubos com forma de bambu e simulações computacionais mostram o papel do nitrogênio na formação dessas estruturas. Amostras de nanotubos nitrogenados também foram submetidas a análise por espectroscopia Raman. Ao mesmo tempo em que essas amostras foram irradiadas com laser de potências variadas, espectros Raman foram coletados fornecendo informações a respeito da ordem estrutural e da pureza relativa das amostras. Tais informações complementam de modo coerente os dados de microscopia eletrônica. Ainda em relação aos nanotubos, foram realizadas medidas de eletroemissão em um sistema com geometria de capacitor plano. Verificou-se que os nanotubos nitrogenados são tão bons emissores quanto aqueles de parede única (não-nitrogenados). Observou-se ainda que o nitrogênio influencia o comportamento do fator de estrutura dos nanotubos, no entanto, a razão disso ainda não está muito clara. Relativamente aos fulerenos, foram obtidos dados de espectrometria de massas que indicam a presença de fulerenos nitrogenados, ou nitrofulerenos, nas amostras sintetizadas em presença de nitrogênio. Suas massas moleculares estão em torno de 523 u.m.a.. Cálculos teóricos [ 30 ] indicam que é possível a existência de tais moléculas (cuja massa prevista é de 522 u.m.a.), já que possuem calor de formação comparável ao dos fulerenos C60. Dados de XPS confirmam a presença de nitrogênio também nessas amostras. A coerência dos resultados experimentais e teóricos sugere fortemente que estamos na direção certa na busca dos heterofulerenos / Abstract: This thesis work aims to synthesize and to characterize structural and chemically nanotubes and fullerenes containing nitrogen. Both nanotubes and fullerenes syntheses were performed using an arc-discharge system filled with gaseous mixtures of He e N2. Electron microscopy samples analysis shows that N2 concentration inside the arc-discharge chamber influences the nitrogen incorporation into the carbon structures that give rise to the nanotubes. Those ones containing N atoms in their composition have a bamboo-like aspect in contrast to those generated in absence of nitrogen gas. XPS analyses indicate that nanotube samples generated in N rich atmospheres in fact have nitrogen in their composition and part of N atoms are substitutionally bonded in graphitic sites. EELS data show that N atoms are preferentially bonded in the bamboo-like nanotubes and computational simulations show the role these N atoms play in the formation of these structures. Nitrogenated nanotube samples were also analyzed by Raman spectroscopy. As the samples were irradiated by the Raman laser at different powers, Raman spectra were collected. Such spectra gave information about the structural order and relative purity of the samples. This information coherently complements the electron microscopy data. It was also performed field emission measurements of the nitrogenated nanotube samples. It was verified that such structures are as good emitters as single wall nanotubes (non-nitrogenated ones). It was also observed that nitrogen influences the behavior of the nanotubes structure factor, however, it was not clear yet why this is so. Finally, it was obtained mass spectrometry data of the fullerenes samples. These data indicate the presence of nitrogenated fullerenes or "nitrofullerenes" in the samples generated in nitrogen rich atmosphere. Their molecular masses are around 523 a.m.u.. Theoretical calculations [ 30] also indicate that the existence of such molecules (whose molecular mass is 522 a.m.u.) is possible, since their heat of formation is comparable to that of the C 60fullerenes. XPS data also confirm that there is nitrogen in these samples. The coherence of the experimental as well as the theoretical results strongly suggests that our quest for the heterofullerenes is in the right direction / Doutorado / Física / Doutor em Ciências

Que ce soit dans l‟étude du claquage sous vide ou dans les sources d‟électrons par effet de champ, l‟émission électronique est un phénomène physique essentiel qui a lieu et devient dominante à la cathode sous haute tension. Dans le cas du claquage sous vide, la première étape de ce mécanisme est l‟émission d‟électrons au sommet de rugosités présentes sur la surface. Celles-ci peuvent être représentées sous la forme de pointes. Dans le cas des sources d‟électrons, l‟émission des électrons peut se faire au niveau d‟émetteurs qui eux aussi peuvent être décrits sous la forme de « pointes » distribués de manière ordonnée sur la surface. Un modèle numérique décrivant l‟émission thermo-ionique assistée par effet de champ a été développé dans le cas d‟une pointe axisymétrique et dont le traitement peut être réduit en 2D.Il s‟agit là d‟un problème multi-physique couplé nécessitant la résolution de problèmes de différentes natures : quantiques, électrostatique, électrocinétique et thermique. A partir de ce modèle, l‟étude de l‟émission et du claquage au sommet d‟une pointe soumise à une pulse électrique de l‟ordre de la nanoseconde a été étudiée. L‟étude de l‟émission électronique sur une cathode soumise à la haute tension et illuminé par un laser picoseconde a ensuite été faite en développant un modèle qui décrit notamment le chauffage du métal en régime hors équilibre. Enfin, dans le cas du claquage sous vide, la modélisation de l‟interaction entre des microparticules, présente dans l‟espace inter-électrodes,et de l‟émission électronique provenant du sommet d‟une rugosité a été realisée. Différents régimes de trajectoires de la microparticules ont été observée suivant le courant appliqué au sommet de la rugosité. / Electron emission in vacuum from a cathode at high voltage is an important physical phenomenon for the study of vacuum breakdown or electron sources. In the vacuum breakdown, the first step of this mechanism is electron emission at the top of the microprotrusions on the surface. Microprotrusions or emitters in electron sources have the shape of a tip. A numerical model describing the thermo-field emission has been developed for a 2D axisymmetric tip. The problem is multi-physical and it is necessary to solve problems of different natures: quantum mechanics, electrostatic, electric current and thermal heating. With this model, it is possibleto study electron emission and vacuumbreakdown when nanosecond high voltage pulses are applied. Furthermore, the study of electron emission when a picosecond pulsed laser illuminates a high voltage cathode has been performed. A new model has been developped to describe the photo-electric effect and a two-temperature model has been implemented to describe the heating of the cathode in a non-equilibrium regime. Finally, the modeling of the interaction between microparticles and electron emission from microprotusions has been realised, in order to study the breakdown voltage. Different trajectories of microparticles have been identified based on the results, depending on the electron emission current.

In dieser Arbeit wird die Erzeugung permanenter Nanostrukturen durch den Beschuss mit langsamen (v < 5x105m/s) hochgeladenen (q < 40) Ionen auf den Oberflächen der Ionenkristalle CaF2 sowie KBr untersucht. Die systematische Analyse der Probenoberfläche mittels Raster-Kraft-Mikroskopie liefert detaillierte Informationen über den Einfluss von potentieller und kinetischer Projektilenergie auf den Prozess der Strukturerzeugung. Der individuelle Einfall hochgeladener Ionen auf der KBr(001)-Oberfläche kann die Erzeugung monoatomar tiefer, lochartiger Strukturen -Nanopits- mit einer lateralen Ausdehnung von wenigen 10nm initiieren. Das Volumen dieser Löcher und damit die Anzahl gesputterter Sekundärteilchen zeigt eine lineare Abhängigkeit von der potentiellen Energie der Projektile. Für das Einsetzen der Locherzeugung konnte ein von der Projektilgeschwindigkeit abhängiger Grenzwert der potentiellen Energie E_grenz^pot (Ekin) gefunden werden. Auf der Basis der defekt-induzierten Desorption durch Elektronen wurde unter Einbeziehung von Effekten der Defektagglomeration ein konsistentes mikroskopisches Modell für den Prozess der Locherzeugung konzipiert. Für die CaF2(111)-Oberfläche kann die aus jüngsten Studien bekannte, individuelle Erzeugung hügelartiger Nanostrukturen -Nanohillocks- durch hochgeladene Ionen in dieser Arbeit auch für kleinste kinetische Energien (E_kin < 150eVxq) verifiziert werden. Die potentielle Energie der einfallenden Ionen wird damit erstmalig zweifelsfrei als alleinige Ursache der Nanostrukturerzeugung identifiziert. Zudem zeigt sich bei geringer Projektilgeschwindigkeit eine Verschiebung der potentiellen Grenzenergie zur Hillock-Erzeugung. Im Rahmen einer Kooperation an der Technischen Universität Wien durchgeführte Simulationsrechnungen auf der Grundlage des inelastischen thermal spike-Modells zeigen, dass die individuelle Hillock-Erzeugung durch hochgeladene Ionen mit einer lokalen Schmelze des Ionenkristalls verknüpft werden kann. Dem essentiellen Einfluss der Elektronenemission während der Wechselwirkung des hochgeladenen Ions mit der Oberfläche auf den Prozess der Nanostrukturerzeugung wird in komplementären Untersuchungen zur Sekundärelektronenstatistik Rechnung getragen. Erstmalig werden dabei Gesamtelektronenausbeuten für Isolatoroberflächen bei kleinsten Projektilgeschwindigkeiten (v < 1x10^5 m/s) bestimmt. Für Geschwindigkeiten v < 5x10^4 m/s findet sich für die Isolatoroberfläche in starkem Kontrast zu Metallen ein signifikanter Abfall der Elektronenausbeute mit sinkender kinetischer Energie. Mögliche Ursachen dieses Effektes werden auf der Grundlage unterschiedlicher Modelle diskutiert.

Electron emission from ferroelectrics (FEE) is a promising source for electrons. Although extensive studies have shown that the emission is inititated by a variation of the spontaneous polarization, the exact underlying emission process remained unclear to date. The focus of this work is to analyze and improve the electron emission process from ferroelectric materials. To achieve low operation voltages thin films and low coercive voltage ferroelectric relaxor single crystals were used. The emission was measured under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions with a single electron detector. The ferroelectric thin films were prepared with a structured top electrode, with nanometer-sized regularly arranged apertures. The emission from lead zirconate titanate (PZT) thin films was achieved at excitation voltages as low as 10 V. The voltage dependent polarization state within the emission apertures of PZT was imaged using piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM). The PFM measurements revealed that an increased fraction of the free surface area is switched by an increased applied voltage. Additional, as a thin film electron emitter, bismuth ferrite (BFO) films were investigated. Ferroelectric relaxor lead magnesium niobate - lead titanate (PMN-PT) was used as single crystal electron emitter due to its low coercive field. The time-dependent electron emission process from PMN-PT was clarified with the help of exciting voltage pulses of variable duration. It is demonstrated that FEE from PMN-PT can be described in the framework of a random field model for relaxors, with the measured electron flux correlating with the amount of reversed polarization. The time-resolved analysis gives insight into the polarization switching and screening processes within PMN-PT. The local electron emission from PMN-PT single crystals has been investigated, in the nanometer regime, with the help of an AFM tip serving as an electron detector. Additionally, the influence of the aperture size in the top electrode on the emission has been investigated. It is found that the electron emission is strongly influenced by the electric field distribution in the aperture. An optimum aperture width for electron emission from PMN-PT, which is much smaller than the apertures used so far, was found. Comparative investigations of the electron emission process from relaxors with barium titanate showed that the emission from PMN-PT is much more complex than the emission from a conventional ferroelectric. General conclusions on the future applications of FEE can be drawn.

The present work reports the experimental evidence of anomalous energy loss, energy straggling, and the corresponding ion-induced electron emission yields of channeled protons in silicon.

The main cause of spacecraft failures is due to the harsh space environment; therefore, rigorous testing of materials used in modern spacecraft is imperative to ensure proper operation during the life span of the mission. Enhancing the capabilities of ground-based test facilities allows for more accurate measurements to be taken as it better simulates the environment to which spacecraft will be exposed. The range of temperature measurements has been significantly extended for an existing space environment simulation test chamber used in the study of electron emission, sample charging and discharge, electrostatic discharge and arcing, electron transport, and luminescence of spacecraft materials. This was accomplished by incorporating a new two-stage, closed-cycle helium cryostat, which has an extended sample temperature range from 450 K, with long-term controlled stability of -7Pa) that can simulate diverse space environments. These existing capabilities include controllable vacuum and ambient neutral gases conditions (< 10-7 to 10-1 Pa), electron fluxes (5 eV to 30 KeV monoenergetic, focused, pulsed sources ranging from 10-4 to 1010 nA-cm-2), ion fluxes (<0.1 to 5keV monoenergetic sources for inert and reactive gases with pulsing capabilities), and photon irradiation (numerous continuous and pulsed monochromatic and broadband IR/VIS/UV [0.5 to 7 eV] sources). The original sample mount accommodates one to four samples of 1 cm to 2.5 cm diameter in a low-temperature carousel, which allows rapid sample exchange and controlled exposure of the individual samples. Multiple additional sample mounts have been added to allow for standalone use for constant voltage measurements, radiation induced and conductivity tests, as well as extended capabilities for electron-induced luminescent measurements to be conducted using various material sample thickness in the original existing space environment simulation test chamber.

This work provides information about interactions that produce emitted electrons from polycrystalline Au. Emission energy- angle- dependent electron spectra from a polycrystalline Au surface have been measured at several incident electron beam energies. The range of incident energies (~100 eV to 2500 eV) extends from below the first crossover energy, through Emaxo, to above the second crossover energy. The conventional distinction between secondary electrons (SE) (50 eV) is found to be crude for the investigation of electron yields using these energy- angle- resolved measurements. A more realistic boundary occurs at the local minima of the emission spectra; this feature is studied as a function of incident energy and emission angle. In addition, deviations observed in the angular resolved emission spectra from isotropic behavior suggests that residual signatures exist in the emission spectra resulting from the anisotropic SE production mechanisms. Based on the disparity between our observations and recent modeling of the emission spectra, the most recent theory and simulation studies may overestimate the occurrence of randomizing collisions of scattered secondary electrons in the model of the transport mechanism. Finally, description of extensive modification to instrumental and analysis methods are described, and their effectiveness is evaluated.

No description available.

No description available.