Tuning the surface structure at the atomic level is of primary importance to simultaneously meet the electrocatalytic performance and stability criteria required for the development of low-temperature proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). However, transposing the knowledge acquired on extended, model surfaces to practical nanomaterials remains highly challenging. Here, we propose the ‘Surface Distortion’ as a novel structural descriptor, which is able to reconciliate and unify seemingly opposing notions and contradictory experimental observations in regards to the electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) reactivity. Beyond its unifying character, we show that surface distortion is pivotal to rationalise the electrocatalytic properties of state-of-art of PtNi/C nanocatalysts with distinct atomic composition, size, shape and degree of surface defectiveness under simulated PEMFC cathode environment. Our study brings fundamental and practical insights into the role of surface defects in electrocatalysis and thus highlights strategies to design more efficient and durable new generation of nanocatalysts

Nanostructured tin oxide materials with a high specific surface area and porosity are promising for applications such as electrocatalysis, lithium ion batteries or sensors. Here, we present a facile strategy for the synthesis of tin oxide aerogels using inexpensive hexahydroxostannate as tin precursor. This easy and scalable method yields tin oxide aerogels with a high specific surface area and wide pore size distribution. The method can be modified by adding hexahydroxoantimonate to obtain antimony doped tin oxide aerogels that show an electrical conductivity after annealing. A cogelation with other preformed nanoparticles (e.g. Au, Pt) leads to mixed gels. Both modifications do not have a large impact on the porous properties of the obtained aerogels. Tin oxide materials prepared via this route can be tailored to a specific application by versatile modification possibilities.

Kern der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Anwendung quantenchemischer Methoden auf Probleme der elektrochemischen Katalyse vor dem Hintergrund der Sauerstoffreduktion, wie sie an kohlenstoffgeträgerten Platinkatalysatoren abläuft. In diesem Zusammenhang werden die Stabilität des Katalysatorsystems und der Mechanismus der Sauerstoffreduktion untersucht, sowie ein Algorithmus zur Berechnung von Molekülen unter einem gegebenen Potential vorgestellt. Zuerst werden die Wechselwirkungen von Platinnanopartikeln mit polyzyklischen Aromaten als Modellverbindungen des Katalysatormaterials untersucht. Weiterhin wird untersucht, wie Modifikationen des Kohlenstoffträgers und variierende Größe des Platinsystems diese Wechselwirkungen beeinflussen. Weiterhin beschäftigt sich diese Arbeit mit dem Reaktionsmechanismus der Sauerstoffreduktion. Zu diesem Zweck wird das Zersetzungsverhalten von H2O2 als mögliches Intermediat der Sauerstoffreduktion an Platinoberflächen untersucht. Weiterhin wird geprüft, inwieweit dem Elektrolyten hinzugefügte Ionen die Zersetzungsreaktionen beeinflussen. Abschließend werden Rückschlüsse auf den Reaktionspfad der Sauerstoffreduktion gezogen. Zuletzt wird ein theoretischer Ansatz zur Berechnung von Systemen im Rahmen der Dichtefunktionaltheorie vorgestellt, bei dem nicht die Anzahl der Elektronen, sondern das elektrochemische Potential vorgegeben ist und die Elektronenzahl potentialabhängig modifiziert wird. Ebenso wird die Relevanz von Rechnungen mit konstantem Potential demonstriert.

No description available.

The underlying motivation for the work carried out for this thesis was the growing need for more sustainable technologies. The aim was to synthesize a “palette” of functional nanomaterials using the established technique of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). The incredible diversity of HTC was demonstrated together with small but steady advances in how HTC can be manipulated to tailor material properties for specific applications. Two main strategies were used to modify the materials obtained by HTC of glucose, a model precursor representing biomass. The first approach was the introduction of heteroatoms, or “doping” of the carbon framework. Sulfur was for the first time introduced as a dopant in hydrothermal carbon. The synthesis of sulfur and sulfur/nitrogen doped microspheres was presented whereby it was shown that the binding state of sulfur could be influenced by varying the type of sulfur source. Pyrolysis may additionally be used to tune the heteroatom binding states which move to more stable motifs with increasing pyrolysis temperature. Importantly, the presence of aromatic binding states in the as synthesized hydrothermal carbon allows for higher heteroatom retention levels after pyrolysis and hence more efficient use of dopant sources. In this regard, HTC may be considered as an “intermediate” step in the formation of conductive heteroatom doped carbon. To assess the novel hydrothermal carbons in terms of their potential for electrochemical applications, materials with defined nano-architectures and high surface areas were synthesized via templated, as well as template-free routes. Sulfur and/or nitrogen doped carbon hollow spheres (CHS) were synthesized using a polystyrene hard templating approach and doped carbon aerogels (CA) were synthesized using either the albumin directed or borax-mediated hydrothermal carbonization of glucose. Electrochemical testing showed that S/N dual doped CHS and aerogels derived via the albumin approach exhibited superior catalytic performance compared to solely nitrogen or sulfur doped counterparts in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) relevant to fuel cells. Using the borax mediated aerogel formation, nitrogen content and surface area could be tuned and a carbon aerogel was engineered to maximize electrochemical performance. The obtained sample exhibited drastically improved current densities compared to a platinum catalyst (but lower onset potential), as well as excellent long term stability. In the second approach HTC was carried out at elevated temperatures (550 °C) and pressure (50 bar), corresponding to the superheated vapor regime (htHTC). It was demonstrated that the carbon materials obtained via htHTC are distinct from those obtained via ltHTC and subsequent pyrolysis at 550 °C. No difference in htHTC-derived material properties could be observed between pentoses and hexoses. The material obtained from a polysaccharide exhibited a slightly lower degree of carbonization but was otherwise similar to the monosaccharide derived samples. It was shown that in addition to thermally induced carbonization at 550 °C, the SHV environment exhibits a catalytic effect on the carbonization process. The resulting materials are chemically inert (i.e. they contain a negligible amount of reactive functional groups) and possess low surface area and electronic conductivity which distinguishes them from carbon obtained from pyrolysis. Compared to the materials presented in the previous chapters on chemical modifications of hydrothermal carbon, this makes them ill-suited candidates for electronic applications like lithium ion batteries or electrocatalysts. However, htHTC derived materials could be interesting for applications that require chemical inertness but do not require specific electronic properties. The final section of this thesis therefore revisited the latex hard templating approach to synthesize carbon hollow spheres using htHTC. However, by using htHTC it was possible to carry out template removal in situ because the second heating step at 550 °C was above the polystyrene latex decomposition temperature. Preliminary tests showed that the CHS could be dispersed in an aqueous polystyrene latex without monomer penetrating into the hollow sphere voids. This leaves the stagnant air inside the CHS intact which in turn is promising for their application in heat and sound insulating coatings. Overall the work carried out in this thesis represents a noteworthy development in demonstrating the great potential of sustainable carbon materials. / Das Ziel der vorgelegten Arbeit war es, mit Hilfe der Hydrothermalen Carbonisierung (HTC) eine Palette an verschiedenen Materialien herzustellen, deren physikalische und chemische Eigenschaften auf spezifische Anwendungen zugeschnitten werden können. Die Motivation hierfür stellt die Notwendigkeit, Alternativen zu Materialien zu finden, die auf fossilen Brennstoffen basieren. Dabei stellen vor allem nachhaltige Energien eine der größten Herausforderungen der Zukunft dar. HTC ist ein mildes, nachhaltiges Syntheseverfahren welches prinzipiell die Nutzung von biologischen Rohstoffen (z. B. landwirtschaftlichen Abfallprodukten) für die Herstellung von wertvollen, Kohlenstoff-basierten Materialien erlaubt. Es wurden zwei verschiedene Ansätze verwendet, um hydrothermalen Kohlenstoff zu modifizieren. Zum einen wurde HTC unter „normalen“ Bedingungen ausgeführt, d. h. bei 180 °C und einem Druck von etwa 10 bar. Der Zucker Glukose diente in allen Fällen als Kohlenstoff Vorläufer. Durch Zugabe von stickstoff und /oder schwefelhaltigen Additiven konnte dotierte Hydrothermalkohle hergestellt werden. Dotierte Kohlenstoffe sind bereits für ihre positiven Eigenschaften, wie verbesserte Leitfähigkeit oder erhöhte Stabilität, bekannt. Zusätzlich zu Stickstoff dotierter Hydrothermalkohle, die bereits von anderen Gruppen hergestellt werden konnte, wurde in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal Schwefel in Hydrothermalkohle eingebaut. Außerdem wurden verschiedene Ansätze verwendet, um Oberfläche und definierte Morphologie der dotierten Materialien zu erzeugen, welche wichtig für elektrochemische Anwendungen sind. Schwefel- und/oder stickstoffdotierte Kohlenstoff Nanohohlkugeln sowie Kohlenstoff Aerogele konnten hergestellt werden. Mit Hilfe von einem zusätzlichen Pyrolyseschritt (d. h. Erhitzen unter Schutzgas) konnte die Leitfähigkeit der Materialien hergestellt werden, die daraufhin als Nichtmetall-Katalysatoren für Wasserstoff-Brennstoffzellen getestet wurden. Im zweiten Ansatz wurde HTC unter extremen Bedingungen ausgeführt, d. h. bei 550 °C und einem Druck von ca. 50 bar, welches im Wasser Phasendiagram dem Bereich des Heißdampfes entspricht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die so erhaltene Hydrothermalkohle ungewöhnliche Eigenschaften besitzt. So hat die Hochtemperatur-Hydrothermalkohle zwar einen hohen Kohlenstoffgehalt (mehr als 90 Massenprozent), enthält aber auch viele Wasserstoffatome und ist dadurch schlecht leitfähig. Da damit elektrochemische Anwendungen so gut wie ausgeschlossen sind, wurde die Hochtemperatur-Hydrothermalkohle für Anwendungen vorgesehen, welche chemische Stabilität aber keine Leitfähigkeit voraussetzen. So wurden beispielsweise Hochtemperatur-Kohlenstoff-Nanohohlkugeln synthetisiert, die großes Potential als schall- und wärmeisolierende Additive für Beschichtungen darstellen. Insgesamt konnten erfolgreich verschiedenste Materialien mit Hilfe von HTC hergestellt werden. Es ist zu erwarten, dass sie in Zukunft zu nachhaltigen Technologien und damit zu einem weiteren Schritt weg von fossilen Brennstoffen beitragen werden.

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) have emerged as a promising renewable emission-free technology to solve the worldwide increasing demand for clean and efficient energy conversion. Despite large efforts in academia and automotive industry, the commercialization of PEFC vehicles still remains a great challenge. Critical issues are high material costs, insufficient catalytic activity as well as longterm durability. Especially due to the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), high Pt loadings on the cathode are still necessary which leads to elevated costs. Alloys of Pt with other less precious metals (Co, Ni, Fe, Cu, etc.) show improved ORR activities compared to pure Pt catalysts. However, state-of-the-art carbon-supported catalysts suffer from severe Pt and carbon corrosion during the standard operation of PEFCs, affecting their reliability and long-term efficiency. Multimetallic aerogels constitute excellent candidates to overcome these issues. Due to their large open pores and high inner surface areas combined with electrical conductivity, they are ideal for applications in electrocatalysis. In addition, they can be employed without any catalyst support. Therefore, the fabrication of bimetallic Pt-M (M=Ni, Cu, Co, Fe) aerogels for applications in fuel cell catalysis was the focus of this thesis. Based on a previously published synthesis for Pt–Pd aerogels, a facile one-step procedure at ambient conditions in aqueous solution was developed. Bimetallic aerogels with nanochain diameters of as small as 4 nm and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface areas of up to 60 m2/g could be obtained. Extensive structure analysis of Pt–Ni and Pt–Cu aerogels by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), scanning transmission electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (STEM-EDX) and electrochemical techniques showed that both metals were predominantly present in their metallic state and formed homogeneous alloys. However, metal (hydr)oxide byproducts were observed in aerogels with higher contents of non-precious metal (>25 %). Moreover, electronic and geometric structures were similar to those of carbon-supported Pt alloy catalysts. As a result, ORR activites were comparable, too. A threefold improvement in surface-specific activity over Pt/C catalysts was achieved. The mass-specific activites met or exceeded the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) target for automotive PEFC applications. Furthermore, a direct correlation between non-precious metal content in the alloy and ORR activity was discovered. Aerogels with nonprecious metal contents >25% turned out to be susceptible to dealloying in acid leaching experiments, but there was no indication for the formation of extended surface structures like Pt-skeletons. A Pt3Ni aerogel was successfully employed as the cathode catalyst layer in a differential fuel cell (1 cm2), which is a crucial step towards technical application. This was the first time an unsupported metallic aerogel was implemented in a PEFC. Accelerated stress tests that are usually applied to investigate the support stability of fuel cell catalysts revealed the excellent stability of Pt3Ni alloyed aerogels. In summary, the Pt alloy aerogels prepared in the context of this work have proven to be highly active oxygen reduction catalysts with remarkable stability.

Dans ce mémoire nous discutons le développement de l’électrode de travail d’un bioréacteur électrochimique, dispositif permettant de synthétiser suivant un procédé dit de « Chimie Verte » des substances chimiques à haute valeur ajoutée. L’électrode de travail étant le siège de la synthèse électrocatalytique en jeu, l’optimisation de sa structure a été étudiée dans le but de maximiser l’aire de sa surface active. L’élaboration d’électrodes macroporeuses hautement organisées et de taille définie par les dimensions du prototype du réacteur pilote, a pu être obtenue en utilisant la méthode de Langmuir-Blodgett pour assembler le cristal colloïdal servant de template. La formation de ce dépôt organisé de colloïdes est suivie de l’électrodéposition du matériau d’électrode puis de la dissolution du template afin de révéler la structure macroporeuse. L’immobilisation de l’intégralité du matériel bio-électrocatalytique à l’intérieur des pores a été investiguée dans le but de prévenir la pollution du milieu contenant le produit final d’électrosynthèse par un des constituants redox et d’augmenter la durée de vie du dispositif. Ainsi, des couches ultra-minces de silice électrogénérée et des matrices de polymère électrodéposé ont été étudiées dans le but de préserver et d’optimiser l’activité enzymatique du système qu’elles encapsulent. Une attention particulière a été portée sur la qualité des dépôts au sein des structures poreuses. La procédure d’immobilisation des protéines rédox dans les matrices de silice et de polymère a été en outre associée à un jeu de construction moléculaire qui a permis par l’instauration de diverses interactions électrostatiques, de retenir toutes les espèces responsables de la catalyse à la surface de l’électrode. Enfin, dans le but d’intensifier les réactions catalytiques responsables de la synthèse à réaliser, des nano-particules d’ormodifiées par une couche monomoléculaire d’un médiateur redox ont été incorporées aux différents matériaux d’immobilisation permettant de ce fait d’augmenter les interfaces d’échanges électrochimiques entre matériau conducteur et biomolécules. L’insertion de ces nano-objectscombinée à la nanostructuration du matériau d’électrode a permis de multiplier par plus de 170 fois l’intensité des réactions enregistrées. / The present work deals with the development of the working electrode of an electrochemicalbioreactor. This device enables the green synthesis of high added value chemical compounds. As theelectrochemical synthesis is located at the interface of the working electrode, structural optimizationof this reactor key component is required in order to maximize the available active surface area.Elaboration of highly organized macroporous gold electrodes with a size required by the pilot reactordimensions were obtained with the Langmuir-Blodgett method that was used to assemble a colloidalcrystal as a template. The elaboration of the organized colloidal deposit is first followed by theelectrodeposition of the electrode material, then by the dissolution of the template. The immobilization of the complete bio-electrochemical system inside the electrode pores was investigated in order to prevent pollution of the final product medium by one of the catalytic chaincomponent. This also improves the device life time. Subsequently electrogenerated ultra-thin silicalayers and electrodeposited polymer matrices were studied in order to preserve and optimize the catalytic activity of the redox proteins. In order to enhance the electrocatalytic synthesis, mediatormodified gold nanoparticules were incorporated in the different immobilization matrices. This allowed to increase the area of the electrochemical interface. The combination of the nano-objectincorporation and electrode nano-structuring intensified by a factor of 170 the catalytic process. / Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung einer Arbeitselektrode für einenelektrochemischen Bioreaktor, der die umweltfreundliche Synthese von wertvollen chemischenKomponenten ermöglicht. Da die elektrochemische Synthese an der Oberfläche der Arbeitselektrodestattfindet, ist es nötig, den strukturellen Aufbau der Schlüsselkomponente des Reaktors zuoptimieren und die aktive Oberfläche der Elektrode zu erhöhen. Mit Hilfe der Langmuir-BlodgettTechnik wurden kolloidale Kristalle erzeugt, die als Template dienten, um hochgeordnetemakroporöse Goldelektroden, deren Dimensionen von dem Pilotreaktor bestimmt wurden,herzustellen. Nach dem Erzeugen von geordneten kolloidalen Filmen wurde der Zwischenraumzwischen den Partikeln mittels elektrochemischer Abscheidung gefüllt und das Templateanschließend chemisch aufgelöst. In der Folge wurde die Immobilisierung des komplettenbioelektrochemischen Systems im Poreninnenraum untersucht, mit dem Ziel eine Verunreinigung desReaktionsmediums durch eine der katalytischen Komponenten zu verhindern. Die Lebensdauer derElektrode kann so zusätzlich erhöht werden. Es wurde untersucht, inwieweit durch elektrogenerierteultra-dünne Silikaschichten oder durch Elektroabscheidung erzeugte Polymerfilme die katalytischeAktivität der Redoxproteine erhalten und weiter optimiert werden kann. Goldnanopartikel, die miteinem Mediator modifiziert wurden, wurden in die jeweilige Immobilisationsschicht integriert, mitdem Ziel die Effizienz der elektrokatalytischen Synthese zu erhöhen. Auf diese Weise konnte dieaktive elektrochemische Oberfläche der Elektrode weiter erhöht werden. Die Kombination aus einernanostrukturierten Elektrode und Nanoobjekten die in die Immobilisationsschicht eingebettetwurden, führte zu einer Signalerhöhung des katalytischen Prozesses um mehr als eineGrössenordnung.

Electrocatalysis plays a vital role in the transition from fossil fuel to renewable energy infrastructure. Bimetallic systems can provide enhanced electrocatalytic activity and/or selectivity due to their altered electronic and/or crystal structures. These two effects are the main parameters responsible for the enhancement of the catalytic properties of multi-metallic systems. In practice, they are often interrelated and can be difficult to distinguish from one another due to random distribution and segregation of the elements in substitutional alloys. With well-defined crystal and electronic structures, intermetallic compounds provide excellent platform materials for a knowledge-based approach aiming for the evaluation and optimization of structural and/or electronic effects in heterogeneous (electro) catalysis. The present PhD thesis focuses on the investigation of the correlations between electronic, geometric and electrocatalytic properties of anode materials in the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR). This is achieved by substitution of indium (three valence electrons) with tin (four valence electrons) in the isostructural series In1-xSnxPd2, which allows for a systematic variation of the total number of electrons per unit cell with a minor variation of the cell parameters. Geometric effects were evaluated by substitution of indium with gallium in the isostructural Ga1-xInxPd2 series, which allows for a systematic variation of the cell parameters (interatomic distances) with the same number of valence electrons per unit cell. By substitution of gallium with tin in the Ga1-xSnxPd2 series, both effects are combined and addressed simultaneously. Single-phase samples of the isostructural series In1-xSnxPd2, Ga1-xInxPd2 and Ga1-xSnxPd2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1), were synthesized and characterized by metallography, powder X-ray diffraction, and electron microscopy to establish the phase composition and to determine the variation of the lattice parameters with composition. The MOR current densities show a distinct change in slop as the fraction of tin increases in the In1-xSnxPd2 series with a minimum at x = 0.8 which is attributed to the alteration of the electronic properties of the materials. For the GaxIn1-xPd2 series, the MOR current densities show a maximum at x = 0.5 which is attributed to the alteration of the structural properties of the materials. The Ga1-xSnxPd2 series shows two maxima at x = 0.15 and 0.93. The high activity at x = 0.15 and 0.93 is attributed to a synergy of simultaneous alteration of electronic and geometric influences and the catalytic properties. The results contribute to the knowledge-based development of catalytic materials with direct experimental evidence of fine-tuning of electronic and/or geometric influences using isostructural intermetallic compounds as platform materials. This provides a basis of model catalysts for further studies to advance fundamental, as well as applied research in catalysis for the development of a green, sustainable future for the new generations.

No description available.

Electrocatalysis plays a prominent role in renewable energy conversion and storage, enabling a number of sustainable processes for future technologies. There are generally three strategies to improve the efficiency (or activity) of the electrocatalysts: (i) increasing the intrinsic activity of the catalyst itself; (ii) improving the exposure of active sites; and (iii) acceleratingmass transfer during catalysis (both reactants and products). These strategies are not mutually exclusive and can ideally be addressed simultaneously, leading to the largest improvements in activity. Aerogels, as featured by large surface area, high porosity, and self-supportability provide a platform that matches all the aforementioned criteria for the design of efficient electrocatalysts. The field of aerogel synthesis has seen much progress in recent years, mainly thanks to the rapid development of nanotechnology. Employing precursors with different properties enables the resulting aerogel with targeted catalytic properties and improved performances. This report demonstrates the design strategies of aerogel catalysts and reviews their performances for several electrochemical reactions. The common principles that govern electrocatalysis are further discussed for each category of reactions, thus serving as a guide to the development of future aerogel electrocatalysts.