Training stress in the absence of adequate recovery has been associated with a decrease in well-being and performance. Thus, there is potential for the high training and competition loads that elite English youth football players experience to have a negative effect on wellbeing and performance. The aim of the thesis was to assess the utility of well-being and physical performance assessments in managing the development of elite English youth football players. The first study (Chapter 4) examined the sensitivity of a subjective well-being questionnaire (WQ; developed ‘in-house’ by sport science practitioners at a category two academy and only taking < 30 s to complete), by comparing the player’s next day responses between two acute training bouts of varied duration; 15 mins (low load) compared to 90 mins (high load) high intensity intermittent exercise (Loughborough intermittent shuttle test, LIST). WQ items showed small to large deteriorations following the high load compared to low load (d=0.4-1.5, P=0.03-0.57). The ability of the WQ to differentiate between responses to high and low training loads indicated that this questionnaire could be used to detect training induced stress prior to training on a daily basis throughout the season. Other modes of monitoring assessment evaluated were either not sensitive to differentiate between high and low loads (countermovement jump; CMJ) or detected differences between high and low training load responses (HR indices) but lacked utility in detecting individual changes. The second study (Chapter 5) applied well-being and physical performance assessments to elite English youth football players during a high intensity, low volume pre-season training period. Trivial changes in perception of WQ items of sleep, recovery, appetite, fatigue, stress and muscle soreness were observed across weeks (P=0.35-0.93, 2 P  =0.02-0.08) with no negative WQ responses evident. Internal training load was lower to a large extent in week 1 (P= < 0.001, 2P  =0.54) yet no differences in internal training load were evident across weeks two, three, four and five. Trivial to small associations (r=-0.21 to 0.19) between internal training load and WQ responses were observed. Small to moderate improvements in aerobic performance were evident post training in comparison with pre training (P < 0.001-0.53, d= 0.33 – 0.94) with a large to moderate improvement in submaximal HR measures (P < 0.001 – 0.09; 2 P  = 0.34 - 0.74) observed across the training weeks. Trivial to moderate impairments in neuromuscular performance were evident post training in comparison with pre training (P < 0.001 – 0.21; d=0.17 – 1.00). Collectively, the preservation of well-being prior to each training session during a pre-season period and improvements in aspects of physical performance were indicative of a balance between stress and recovery. The third study (Chapter 6) examined player perceptions of well-being and physical performance across a season in Elite English youth football players. Increases in training exposure (P < 0.05; 2 P  =0.52) and moderate to large deteriorations in perceptions of well-being (motivation, sleep quality, recovery, appetite, fatigue, stress, muscle soreness P < 0.05; 2 P  =0.30-0.53) were evident as the season progressed. A large improvement in Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test performance (Yo-Yo IRT; P < 0.05; 2 P  =0.93) and a small to moderate impairment in neuromuscular performance (P > 0.05; 2 P  =0.18 - 0.48) was observed as the season progressed. These findings show an imbalance between stress and recovery in English elite youth football players even when players experienced lower training exposure than stipulated by the elite player performance plan (EPPP). In summary, this thesis highlights the potential utility of subjective well-being assessments to inform the management English elite youth football player development. Furthermore, it highlights the high training volumes that English elite youth players are exposed can potentially lead to an imbalance between stress and recovery.

Nine Australian male cross country ski team members (19.8±2.5 years, (X±SD),76.6±6.4kg, 184.8±4.9cm) completed both an incremental maximal exercise test and a 45 minute time trial performance test using a dryland ski striding technique with poles on a treadmill. Testing occurred at 610m in a chamber that was supplied with either an 02 enriched (p02 = 152mmHg) or an N2 enriched (p02 = 132mmHg) gas mixture to simulate sea level (SL) or 1800m (A) conditions respectively. A 48 hour rest interval was provided between tests and the testing conditions were randomised, counterbalanced and double blind. At maximum effort there were significant differences in V02 max (70.2±4.0 v 61.7±2.9 ml.kg-1.min-1), PaO2 (97.2±12.7 v 77.1±11.2 mmHg) and SaO2 (90.6±4.9 v 77.8±3.9%); but not in HR (194.1±8.1 v 191.7±7.4 bpm), VE (133.1±12.8 v 132.6±11.3 L.min-1 STPD) or [La] (14.2±2.3 v 13.7±3.3 mM) at SL v A. There was a decrease of 7.6% in overall time trial performance between the conditions (4005±378 v 3702±301 m, p = 0.08), although performance was significantly lower at A during the latter period of the test, >25 minutes. During the steady state stage of the time trial performance test, (=75% SL VO2 max) there were no significant differences between SL and A in any of VO2 (52.9±5.9 v 52.1±4.9 ml.kg-'.min-' at 15 minutes for SL and A respectively); HR (173.1±12.8 v 176.1+10.1 bpm); or [La] (3.0±1.0 v 4.8±2.2 mM). However, there was a significant reduction in PaO2 between SL (111.2±25.5 mmHg at 15 minutes) and A (72.6±24.3 mmHg at 15 minutes), resulting in a significant reduction in SaO2 (96.6±1.1 v 84.6±6.8% at 15 minutes) between the conditions. At the end of each lap of the variable workload stage of the time trial performance test there were significant reductions in VO2 (65.3±6.9, 64.2±6.3 and 66.4±5.9 v 54.6±5.6, 56.0±4.6 and 57.9±3.2 ml.kg-'.min-1 at 25, 35 and 45 minutes at SL v A); and HR (190.1 ±9.2, 192.4±8.6 and 195.9±7.6 v 181.8±12.4, 186±8.1 and 189.6±9.2 bpm) under A conditions. There were no significant differences in [La] at the end of each lap of the time trial performance test between SL and A, although [La] did increase over time during the test at both SL and A (6.2±2.0, 8.9±2.8 and 10.6±4.1 v 7.6±2.0, 8.4±2.2 and 9.9± 1.8 mM). At the end of each lap of the time trial performance test, there was a significant reduction in PaO2 (120.9±24.4, 108.8±25.9 and 103.0±23.0 v 86.0±31.4, 94.9±22.3 and 71.1±3.2 mmHg); and SaO2 (94.6±2.4, 94.3±2.4 and 92.3±3.4 v 85.9±5.8, 84.3±6.4 and 81.7±6.1%) and both PaO, and SaO2 decreased over time during the test at both SL and A. This study has indicated that as well as the extent of hypoxia induced by altitude, both exercise intensity and duration may impact on the magnitude of the response to sustained exercise at altitude, such as in cross country ski racing.

This paper will explore how track and field athletes are currently using social media, what types of social media attract or repel sponsorship and what barriers and opportunities exist for social media use in the sport of track and field. A variety of different sources will be used including academic papers, interviews with community managers from Saucony and Brooks and social media publications. / text

Athlete-centred coaching is proposed to enhance performance (Lyle, 2002), develop life skills (Kidman &amp; Lombardo, 2010), and prevent athlete maltreatment (Kerr &amp; Stirling, 2008). Despite the consistent recommendation, very little is known empirically about athlete-centred coaching, the extent to which it is implemented, or athletes&rsquo; experiences with this style of coaching. The purpose of this study therefore was to examine recently retired elite athletes&rsquo; perspectives on their most athlete-centred coach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight male and female recently retired Olympians. The findings of this study provided mixed evidence for coaching behaviours characterized as athlete-centred coaching as defined within the literature. Specifically, at least half of the coaches did not use stimulating questions, one of the most central athlete-centred tenets. Explanations for the mixed findings are discussed and a continuum of athlete-centred coaching is proposed. Lastly, suggestions for future research and practical implications are presented.

Athlete-centred coaching is proposed to enhance performance (Lyle, 2002), develop life skills (Kidman &amp; Lombardo, 2010), and prevent athlete maltreatment (Kerr &amp; Stirling, 2008). Despite the consistent recommendation, very little is known empirically about athlete-centred coaching, the extent to which it is implemented, or athletes&rsquo; experiences with this style of coaching. The purpose of this study therefore was to examine recently retired elite athletes&rsquo; perspectives on their most athlete-centred coach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight male and female recently retired Olympians. The findings of this study provided mixed evidence for coaching behaviours characterized as athlete-centred coaching as defined within the literature. Specifically, at least half of the coaches did not use stimulating questions, one of the most central athlete-centred tenets. Explanations for the mixed findings are discussed and a continuum of athlete-centred coaching is proposed. Lastly, suggestions for future research and practical implications are presented.

The purpose of this study was to investigate elite soccer players' attentional focus during their best performances, better understand the strategies they use to enter or re-enter optimal attentional states, and explore potential attentional differences according to soccer positions, performance tasks, and game situations. No previous studies have explored elite soccer players' attentional skills from a naturalistic and qualitative perspective in such detail. The growing interest in soccer among Canadians provided further justification for this study. Data collection consisted of individual semi-structured interviews with eight elite soccer players from five main soccer positions, namely goalkeeper, defender, wing, midfielder, and forward. Cross-case thematic analysis indicated positive thinking and pre-performance routines as important sources of optimal focus. Attentional focus varied according to soccer positions and performance tasks. Information processing, sport expertise, and attentional systems theoretical frameworks informed the discussion of results. Applied and theoretical implications were drawn and future studies were recommended.

The purpose of this study was to investigate elite soccer players' attentional focus during their best performances, better understand the strategies they use to enter or re-enter optimal attentional states, and explore potential attentional differences according to soccer positions, performance tasks, and game situations. No previous studies have explored elite soccer players' attentional skills from a naturalistic and qualitative perspective in such detail. The growing interest in soccer among Canadians provided further justification for this study. Data collection consisted of individual semi-structured interviews with eight elite soccer players from five main soccer positions, namely goalkeeper, defender, wing, midfielder, and forward. Cross-case thematic analysis indicated positive thinking and pre-performance routines as important sources of optimal focus. Attentional focus varied according to soccer positions and performance tasks. Information processing, sport expertise, and attentional systems theoretical frameworks informed the discussion of results. Applied and theoretical implications were drawn and future studies were recommended.

Både ospecifik akut- och kronisk ländryggssmärta (LBP) är stora problem världen över, både för den generella populationen och elitidrottare. Elitidrottare ställs för höga fysiska påfrestningar som kan påverka LBP. I studien undersöks prevalens av LBP hos elithandbollsspelare samt eventuella samband mellan enskilda variabler såsom exempelvis träningsmängd och spelpositioner och LBP hos elithandbollsspelare. Utöver detta undersöks även spelarnas bedömning av huruvida LBP påverkar deltagandet i idrotten. En webbaserad enkät skickades ut till elitklubbar i Handbollsligan, SHE och Allsvenskan. I studien deltog 91 individer, 46 män och 45 kvinnor. Frågorna i enkäten behandlade prevalens av LBP samt variabler som kan ha ett samband med LBP. Totalt hade 77% besvärats av LBP och 40% av dessa lider av kronisk LBP. En högre medianålder var signifikant associerat med LBP (p=0,044). Inga signifikanta skillnader syntes i fördelningstester mellan prevalent LBP och spelstil (kvinnor p=0,6 män p=0,4 totalt p=0,8), LBP och anfallsposition (kvinnor p=0,8 män p=0,3 totalt p=0,5), LBP och försvarsposition (kvinnor p=0,2 män p=0,8 totalt p=0,7). Logistisk regression påvisade inget signifikant samband mellan träningsmängd och LBP (p=0,1, odds-ratio 0,574, CI 0,296 – 1,11). Justering för ålder påverkade inte oddsen för LBP nämnvärt (p=0,1, odds-ratio 0,581, CI 0,294 – 1,14). Det syntes en stor diskrepans i huruvida spelarna missade träning och matcher jämfört med hur LBP påverkade deltagandet överlag. Inga signifikanta samband mellan spelstil, spelposition eller träningsmängd och LBP påvisades i studien. Det visas dock att LBP är vanligt förekommande inom svensk elithandboll men att deltagarantalet var för litet för att dra säkra slutsatser kring detta. / Both unspecific acute and chronic low-back pain (LBP) are global problems in the general public aswell as elite athletes. Elite-athletes are exposed to high physical demands which could affect LBP. This study investigated the prevalence of LBP in elite-handballers, associations between LBP and several variables such as handball-sessions/week and playing-position. Secondly, the study investigated if LBP impedes on players participation within sport. A web-based survey was sent to elite-clubs in Sweden’s highest divisions; Handbollsligan, SHE, Allsvenskan. A total of 91 players participated, 46 men and 45 women. The survey-questions investigated the prevalence of LBP and variables which could be associated with LBP. A total of 77% stated issues with LBP, 40% of these suffers from chronic LBP. A higher median age were associated with LBP (p=044). No statistical significance was found in Chi-2 tests between prevalent LBP and style of play (women p=0,6 men p=0,6 total p=0,8), LBP and offensive-position (women p=0,8 Men p=0,3 total p=0,5), LBP and defensive-position (women p=0,2 men p=0,8 total p=0,7). No significant association was found between handball-sessions/week and LBP (p=0,1, odds-ratio 0,574, CI 0,296 – 1,11). Adjustment for age did not affect the outcome mentionably (p=0,1, odds-ratio 0,581, CI 0,294 – 1,14). Many players experienced that LBP affected their participation overall but few missed matches and training because of LBP. No significant association between style of play, playing-position or handball-sessions and LBP was found. LBP is common in swedish elite-handballers, but the number of participants were too low to state this for certain.

Millions of children participate in sport and through their participation come into contact with coaches who are there to guide and support them. However, it has been observed that not all children’s relationships with their coaches have been positive ones, and concerns have been raised about the nature of the child-athlete relationship within the sports context. This research sought to use theory from child maltreatment research and apply it within a sports context to investigate perceived child athlete experiences. The research used both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to investigate retrospectively athletes’ perceptions of, and emotional responses to their coach’s behaviour. The initial study used qualitative method to establish if key theoretical frameworks from outside sport had a resonance and relevance within a sports context. Twelve elite athletes, all of whom had been identified as ‘elite’ when children reported that they had experienced negative coaching behaviour on a frequent basis they also reported negative emotional responses to this behaviour, and emotional problems as a consequence of how they were coached when they were children. Study Two (n=229), focused on broadening the research to access a larger population of athletes in order to examine their perceptions and experiences of being coached. In order to achieve this aim a new questionnaire, the Sport Emotional Response Questionnaire (SER-Q), was developed. The SER-Q was grounded in the real-life experiences of those athletes in Study One, and as such represented their expert opinions of their coaches’ behaviour. Through factor analysis, a 22-item questionnaire was established which measured frequency of negative (i.e. emotionally abusive) coach behaviour, athletes’ emotional response and perceived effect on performance. Results from this study showed that frequency of negative coach behaviour and emotional response were significantly and negatively correlated such that, as the frequency increased so did the negative emotional response. Study Three (n=314), was a confirmatory study, and found similar results to Study Two. Study Four (n=543), sought to investigate, through the SER-Q, specific questions in relation to: competitive level, athlete gender, and type of sport (either team or individual) and gender of the coach. Results revealed that there were no significant differences between athlete gender, type of sport and coach gender. However, significant results were found in relation to competitive level. Elite athletes (international-level and national-level) reported experiencing significantly more frequent negative coach behaviour: they also reported a greater negative emotional response to it than any of the non-elite (recreational-level, club-level and regional-level) groups. Finally, Study Five examined the perceived performance effect, and found a significant negative relationship with frequency, such that has the frequency increased so did the perceived negative performance effect; and a significant positive relationship with emotional response. Further results from this Study Five also found that there were only significant differences in relation to competitive level. Again elite athletes reported significantly greater detriments to their perceived performance resulting from their coach’s behaviour than did non-elite athletes. A consistent finding across all the studies was that when athletes reported ‘never’ having experienced emotionally abusive behaviour from their coach, they always reported ‘no emotional response’, and no effect on their performance. Therefore, the SER-Q was able to discriminate between these two populations of athletes. Overall, the findings from these studies have contributed to the development of a theoretical model that describes the process of emotional abuse from a child athlete perspective. Secondly, the findings reveal that elite athletes report different experiences of being coached when children than non-elite athletes. Furthermore, these studies found that theories anchored in family settings can be used to explore issues within a sports setting, and thus the child maltreatment perspective has relevance in developing sports specific theory in relation to the coach-child athlete relationship. A consistent finding across all the studies was that when athletes reported ‘never’ having experienced emotionally abusive behaviour from their coach, they always reported ‘no emotional response’, and no effect on their performance. Therefore, the SER-Q was able to discriminate between these two populations of athletes. Overall, the findings from these studies have contributed to the development of a theoretical model that describes the process of emotional abuse from a child athlete perspective. Secondly, the findings reveal that elite athletes report different experiences of being coached when children than non-elite athletes. Furthermore, these studies found that theories anchored in family settings can be used to explore issues within a sports setting, and thus the child maltreatment perspective has relevance in developing sports specific theory in relation to the coach-child athlete relationship.

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