There is an immense need for sustainability due to global warming.  The Paris agreement drafted in 2015 and signed by 191 parties aims to keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are required to be adopted and operational by 2030.  The 17 SDGs seek to bring stability, development, and improved lives and opportunities to all countries. The construction and real estate sector in the EU accounts for 36% of all CO2 emissions, 40% of energy consumption, and 1/3rd of all potable water usage.  Sustainability must be prioritized in all aspects of a building project and process, from concrete selection to HVAC system operation hours. This study investigates how energy and water systems can be designed sustainably and improve awareness to make more informed decisions about water and energy systems during the design process of the construction project. The results of this study are retrieved from the information gathered using the three research methods, literature- and case study, and interviews. The literature study examined current studies on sustainable water and energy systems. The case study took place at SPOR X, a construction site in Drammen, Norway, where Vestaksen Properties owns a soon-to-be BREEAM Outstanding solid wooden building. The interviews took place during the design stage with key personnel. The results from all three methods are matching. In order to achieve sustainability, the most important categories are material, transportation, and efficient equipment.  The other result from the studies is that using BREEAM certification will contribute to sustainability and reach the UN SDG. This study’s key result is that tap water, kitchen equipment, and irrigation all need effective water use to achieve sustainability in water system design. Key results regarding energy can be divided into two, the loss of energy and the utilization of energy. The building envelope must be airtight and well-sealed to reduce energy loss, and the use of water and energy must be efficient. More research for implementing water and energy systems in the integrated energy design is necessary for broader mapping of how water and energy can be integrated into the early stages of energy design. This study can be viewed as a contribution to this mapping. The study alone is not sufficient for giving all the answers regarding water and energy sustainability. However, it contributes by providing some possible answers in an increasingly important field of work having a significant effect on the future - an effect for the individual country and the world united by UNs SDG.

Exploiting solar energy technology for both heating and cooling purposes has the potential of meeting an appreciable portion of the energy demand in buildings throughout the year. By developing an integrated, multi-purpose solar energy system, that can operate all twelve months of the year, a high utilisation factor can be achieved which translates to more economical systems. However, there are still some techno-economic barriers to the general commercialisation and market penetration of such technologies. These are associated with high system and installation costs, significant system complexity, and lack of knowledge of system implementation and expected performance. A sorption heat pump module that can be integrated directly into a solar thermal collector has thus been developed in order to tackle the aforementioned market barriers. This has been designed for the development of cost-effective pre-engineered solar energy system kits that can provide both heating and cooling. This thesis summarises the characterisation studies of the operation of individual sorption modules, sorption module integrated solar collectors and a full solar heating and cooling system employing sorption module integrated collectors. Key performance indicators for the individual sorption modules showed cooling delivery for 6 hours at an average power of 40 W and a temperature lift of 21°C. Upon integration of the sorption modules into a solar collector, measured solar radiation energy to cooling energy conversion efficiencies (solar cooling COP) were between 0.10 and 0.25 with average cooling powers between 90 and 200 W/m2 collector aperture area. Further investigations of the sorption module integrated collectors implementation in a full solar heating and cooling system yielded electrical cooling COP ranging from 1.7 to 12.6 with an average of 10.6 for the test period. Additionally, simulations were performed to determine system energy and cost saving potential for various system sizes over a full year of operation for a 140 m2 single-family dwelling located in Madrid, Spain. Simulations yielded an annual solar fraction of 42% and potential cost savings of €386 per annum for a solar heating and cooling installation employing 20m2 of sorption integrated collectors.

Performance testing methods of boilers in transient operating conditions (start, stop and combustion power modulation sequences) need the combustion rate quantified to allow for the emissions to be quantified. One way of quantifying the combustion rate of a boiler during transient operating conditions is by measuring the flue gas flow rate. The flow conditions in chimneys of single family house boilers pose a challenge however, mainly because of the low flow velocity. The main objectives of the work were to characterize the flow conditions in residential chimneys, to evaluate the use of the Pitot-static method and the averaging Pitot method, and to develop and test a calibration method for averaging Pitot probes for low 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅.A literature survey and a theoretical study were performed to characterize the flow conditions in in single family house boiler chimneys. The flow velocities under normal boiler operating conditions are often below the requirements for the assumptions of non-viscous fluid justifying the use of the quadratic Bernoulli equation. A non-linear calibration coefficient is required to correct for these viscous effects in order to avoid significant measurement errors. The flow type in the studied conditions changes from laminar, across the transition regime, to fully turbulent flow, resulting in significant changes of the velocity profile during transient boiler operation. Due to geometrical settings occurring in practice measurements are often done in the hydrodynamic entrance region, where the velocity profiles are neither fully developed nor symmetrical. The predicted changes in velocity profiles are also confirmed experimentally in two chimneys.Several requirements set in ISO 10780 and ISO 3966 for Pitot-static probes are either met questionably or not met at all, meaning that the methods cannot be used as such. The main issues are the low flow velocity, viscous effects, and velocity profiles that change significantly during normal boiler operation. The Pitot-static probe can be calibrated for low 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, but is not reliable because of the changing velocity profiles.The pressure averaging probe is a simple remedy to overcome the problems with asymmetric and changing velocity profiles, but still keeping low the irrecoverable pressure drop caused by the probe. However, commercial averaging probes are not calibrated for the characterized chimney conditions and the information available on the performance of averaging probes at low 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is scarce. A literature survey and a theoretical study were done to develop a method for calibrating pressure averaging probes for low 𝑅𝑅𝑒 flue gas flows in residential chimneys.The experimental part consists of constructing a calibration rig, testing the performance of differential pressure transducers, and testing a prototype pressure averaging probe. The results show good correlation over a wide operation range, but the low 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 characteristics of the probe could not be identified due to instability in the chosen pressure transducer, and temperature correlation for one of the probes while not for the other. The differential pressures produced are close to the performance limitations of readily available transducers and it should be possible to improve the method by focusing on finding or building a suitable pressure transducer. The performance of the averaging method can be improved further by optimizing the geometry of the probe. Another way of reducing the uncertainty would be to increase the probe size relative to the conduit diameter to produce a higher differential pressure, at the expense of increasing the irrecoverable pressure drop.

Renewable energy integration is increasing – alongside it, the main limiting factors of such sources of energy have to be considered. Each source of energy comes with its unique sets of challenges, namely the way that the generation curves behave. These patterns should be considered, if photovoltaics can contribute at a larger rate to the grid. The current non-renewable sources provide a high response rate and great control over voltage/frequency – key parameters of the grid. Proper utilization of renewable energies is key to sustainable systems of the future.The work considers the possibility of regulating the energy flow through the usage of electric vehicles (EV). The thesis proposes a model within which particle swarm optimization is used to derive EV charging rates, which contribute to the overall performance of a controlled household system. Three control strategies are considered – individual, bottom-up and top-down control. The methodologies are introduced and compared in the study.Top-down control proves to be the most stable and most efficient at reducing energy mismatch when compared to other control strategies. It should however be underlined that any control strategy proposed in the study leads to a greater utilization of renewable energy and can greatly benefit any system with EVs and PV energy present.

Analysverktyg för elproduktion är en viktig del inom området elkraft för att kunna analysera kvalitet och mängden producerad energi över tid. En allt viktigare fråga är möjligheten till att kunna förutse och uppskatta energiproduktion via så kallade simuleringsverktyg för bland annat solcellspaneler. Målet med detta arbete är att jämföra den faktiska elproduktionen för ett antal anläggningar i Sverige med simulerade modeller och analysera produktionens variation i Sverige. Ett av delmålen var dessutom att beskriva hur lutningen och riktningen av en solcellspanel påverkar produktionen, resultatet är baserad på en fixad geografisk ort i Sverige (Sundsvall). Under arbetets gång så har en litteraturstudie genomförts och ansvarig personal från anläggningar har intervjuats för att samla in information för arbetet. Datainsamling har gjort från anläggningarnas databaser som skapats från effekt- och energianalysatorer (Elspec) samt från simuleringsverktyg (Renewenable ninja). Datastoffet har sedan grundläggande bearbetats, analyserats och grafer har autogenererats via script/macro som tagits fram i Microsoft Excel. Resultatet har påvisat att det är möjligt att förutse och uppskatta energiproduktionen mycket bra via simuleringar. Vissa avvikelser mellan den faktiska produktionen och aktuella simuleringar kan till viss del förklaras från begränsningar i simuleringsverktyg. Med fokus på panelens riktning och lutning så påträffas den högsta produktionen över året för en solcellspanel placerad i Sundsvall (Lat: 62,390 & Lon: 17,307) riktad åt söder, med en panel vinkel på omkring  och under juli månad. Energiproduktionen är som lägst under vinterhalvåret. Energiproduktionen för en solcellspanel i Sverige varierar kraftigt med varierad riktning, vinkel och geografisk placering. Generellt så gäller att den högsta produktioner påträffas för solpaneler monterade i rakt söderläge och där optimal panelvinkel är beroende på geografisk placering från norr till söder. Solpaneler som är monterade från sydöst till sydväst (medurs) ger den högsta produktionen över året och paneler som monteras från nordväst till nordöst (medurs) ger den lägsta produktionen. Produktionen följer dessutom en viss symmetri baserad på solpanelens riktning. Analysverktyg för elproduktion är en viktig del inom området elkraft för att kunna analysera kvalitet och mängden producerad energi över tid. En allt viktigare fråga är möjligheten till att kunna förutse och uppskatta energiproduktion via så kallade simuleringsverktyg för bland annat solcellspaneler. Målet med detta arbete är att jämföra den faktiska elproduktionen för ett antal anläggningar i Sverige med simulerade modeller och analysera produktionens variation i Sverige. Ett av delmålen var dessutom att beskriva hur lutningen och riktningen av en solcellspanel påverkar produktionen, resultatet är baserad på en fixad geografisk ort i Sverige (Sundsvall). Under arbetets gång så har en litteraturstudie genomförts och ansvarig personal från anläggningar har intervjuats för att samla in information för arbetet. Datainsamling har gjort från anläggningarnas databaser som skapats från effekt- och energianalysatorer (Elspec) samt från simuleringsverktyg (Renewenable ninja). Datastoffet har sedan grundläggande bearbetats, analyserats och grafer har autogenererats via script/macro som tagits fram i Microsoft Excel. Resultatet har påvisat att det är möjligt att förutse och uppskatta energiproduktionen mycket bra via simuleringar. Vissa avvikelser mellan den faktiska produktionen och aktuella simuleringar kan till viss del förklaras från begränsningar i simuleringsverktyg. Med fokus på panelens riktning och lutning så påträffas den högsta produktionen över året för en solcellspanel placerad i Sundsvall (Lat: 62,390 & Lon: 17,307) riktad åt söder, med en panel vinkel på omkring  och under juli månad. Energiproduktionen är som lägst under vinterhalvåret. Energiproduktionen för en solcellspanel i Sverige varierar kraftigt med varierad riktning, vinkel och geografisk placering. Generellt så gäller att den högsta produktioner påträffas för solpaneler monterade i rakt söderläge och där optimal panelvinkel är beroende på geografisk placering från norr till söder. Solpaneler som är monterade från sydöst till sydväst (medurs) ger den högsta produktionen över året och paneler som monteras från nordväst till nordöst (medurs) ger den lägsta produktionen. Produktionen följer dessutom en viss symmetri baserad på solpanelens riktning.

Global warming is now widely recognized as being the biggest global issue facing human beings. Mitigating CO2 emission from fossil-fueled power plants as well as from transports has become an urgent and worldwide research topic, in which CO2 separation is often needed. Technologies have been developed and commercialized, whereas the cost is still high. Developing new technologies for CO2 separation is one focus research area. Ionic liquids (ILs) are promising absorbents for CO2 separation due to their very low vapor pressure, high solubility and selectivity for CO2 as well as low energy usage for solvent regeneration. To develop IL-based technologies, thermodynamic properties (density, heat capacity, gas solubility, etc.), viscosity, and surface tension of ILs are the prerequisites. As the number of ILs that can be theoretically synthesized is up to an order of 1018, determining all the properties experimentally is impractical, not to mention the time-consuming with high cost. It is desirable to develop theoretical tools to predict the thermodynamics and transport properties of ILs and IL-containing mixtures in a wide temperature and pressure range. In our previous work, the framework of ion-specific electrolyte perturbed-chain statistical associating fluid theory (ePC-SAFT) has been developed with reliable results. However, the work is still limited to the imidazolium-based ILs, and the model performance for other commonly used ILs is still unclear. Meanwhile, it has been pointed out that the model with the parameters fitted to the experimental data may result in pitfalls, and further validation is needed. In this thesis, the ion-specific ePC-SAFT was further developed and extended to the ILs which are composed of the IL-cations ([Cnmim]+ , [Cnpy]+ , [Cnmpy] + , [Cnmpyr]+ , and [THTDP]+ ) and the IL-anions ([Tf2N]- , [PF6] - , [BF4] - , [tfo]- , [DCA]- , [SCN]- , [C1SO4] - , [C2SO4] - , [eFAP]- , Cl- , [Ac]- , and Br- ). Before modeling the properties, a method and scheme were developed to investigate the pitfall when modeling IL with ePC-SAFT. All 96 ILs considered in the thesis were covered. The investigation shows that for most ILs (86 of 96 ILs), the additional fictitious critical temperature is low enough not to affect the calculations at a normal temperature range, and after further phase equilibrium calculation, only one IL ([C8mpy][BF4]) may generate a risk of pitfall occurrence at the temperature and pressure of interest for CO2 separation. The parameters for [Cnmpy]+ may need to be modified in future work. The prediction of the derivative properties (isobaric heat capacity, isochoric heat capacity, speed of sound, isentropic compressibility coefficient, isothermal compressibility coefficient, thermal expansion coefficient, thermal pressure coefficient, and internal pressure) combined with the comparison to the available experimental data shows that ePC-SAFT can provide reliable results for most ILs. ePC-SAFT was used to predict the CO2 solubilities in 46 ILs, and the prediction agrees well with the experimental data in a wide temperature and pressure range for 36 ILs. The addition of an ion-specific binary ii parameter between IL-ion and CO2 can further improve the model performance significantly for the 10 ILs with relatively poor model performance. ePC-SAFT can also provide a reliable prediction for the solubility of other pure gases (CH4, CO, H2, N2, and O2). To further verify the model performance on the viscosity of ILs, ePC-SAFT coupled with the free volume theory (FVT) (i.e., ePC-SAFT-FVT) was studied. Two strategies were applied to adjust the FVT parameters, i.e., molecular-based approach with parameters for each IL (strategy 1) and IL-cation molecular-weight linearized parameters for the ILs in the same homologous series (strategy 2). The comparison with the available experimental viscosities for 96 ILs shows that the strategy 1 can provide reliable results for 89 ILs in a wide temperature and pressure range, while strategy 2 can provide almost similar reliable results as strategy 1. ePC-SAFT-FVT can be further used to predict the viscosity of ILmixtures reliably. The model ePC-SAFT-DGT, i.e., the coupling of ePC-SAFT with the density gradient theory (DGT), was further developed and used to model the interfacial properties of ILs. The comparison with the available experimental surface tensions for 82 ILs shows that the model can represent the surface tension reliably, and the use of the anion-specific influence parameters linearized with the molecular weights of IL-cations allows predicting the surface tension of the ILs in the same homologous series. The density profile on the vaporliquid interface can be further predicted with the influence parameter adjusted by the surface tension. In summary, the ion-specific ePC-SAFT is a suitable tool for IL-systems, which can be highly recommended to be applied in industrial design and optimization.

Data centers requires a lot of energy due to that data centers count as the buildings also contains servers, cooling equipment, IT-equipment and power equipment. As the cooling solution for many data centers around the world right now, the compressor-based cooling solution counts for around 40% of the total energy consumption. A non-compressor-based solution that is used in some data centers, but also is in a research phase is the free cooling application. Free cooling means that the outside air is utilized to cool down the data center and there are two main technologies that contains within free cooling: airside free cooling and waterside free cooling. The purpose of this master thesis is to analyze two types of coils; one corrugated and the other one smooth, providing from Bensby Rostfria, to investigate if it is possible to use free cooling in 5G EDGE data center in Luleå, with one of these coils. The investigation will be done during the warmest day in summer. This because, according to weather data, Luleå is one candidate where this type of cooling system could be of use. The project was done through RISE ICE Datacenter where two identical systems was built next to each other with two corrugated hoses of different diameter and two smooth tubes with different diameter. The variables that was measured was the ambient temperature within the data hall, the water temperature in both water tanks, the temperature out from the system, the temperature in to the system and the mass flow of the air that was going to go through the system. The first thing that was done was to do fan curves to easier choose which input voltages for the fans that was of interest to do further analysis on. After that was done, three point was taken where the fan curve was of most increase. The tests were done by letting the corrugated hoses and smooth tubes to be in each of the water tanks and fill it with cold water. It was thereafter the coils that should warm the water from 4,75 °C – 9,75 °C, because of that the temperature in the data center was around 15 °C. The rising in particularly these temperatures was chosen because it is seen that to use free cooling the temperature differences must be at least 5 °C. The tests were done three times to get a more reliable result. All the data was further taken in to Zabbix and to further analysis in Grafana. When one test was done the files was saved from Grafana to Excel for compilation, and thereafter to Matlab for further analysis. The first thing that was analyzed was if the three different tests with the same input voltages gave similar results in the water temperature in the tank and the temperature out from the system. Thereafter, trendlines was built to investigate the temperature differences in and out of the system, the temperature differences in and the water temperature in the tank, the mass flow and the cooling power. That trendline was further in comparison to each other, which was 2D-plots between the cooling power and the temperature differences between the inlet and the water. Thereafter the both coils could compare to each other to see which of them that gave the largest cooling power and was most efficient to install in a future 5G data center module.  The conclusion for this master thesis is that the corrugated hose will give a higher cooling power with higher temperature differences outside, but during the warmest summer day it was distinctly the smooth tube that gave the largest cooling power and therefore the best result. The smooth tube also got, through hand calculations, the larger amount of pipe that was necessary to cool down the 5G module, but the smallest water tank. It was also shown that for the warmest summer day, a temperature in the water tank of 24 °C is the best, compared to 20 °C and 18 °C. The amount of coil that is needed to cool down the data center with a temperature in the water tank at 24 °C and how large the water tank differs between the two types of coils. For the corrugated hose a length of 1.8 km and a water tank of 9.4 m3. As for the smooth tube a length of 1.7 km and a water tank volume of 12 m3.  As can be seen throughout this project is that this type of cooling equipment is not the most efficient for the warmest summer day but could easily be used for other seasons.

The vast majority of trucks in the European Union are reliant on fossil fuels as their primary mode of propulsion. In efforts to decarbonise the truck transport sector manufacturers are developing electrified trucks. An electrification may serve to reduce the tailpipe emissions of trucks, but it introduces a new challenge to supply the cabin with energy. This energy is primarily used to maintain a comfortable cabin climate for the driver and passenger. In order to maximise the range of an electric truck the cabin energy requirement needs to be minimised. This thesis evaluates the current energy performance of a Scania S20H cabin through experimental testing as well as simulations using the simulation software GT-SUITE. Based on the results from the tests and the models, energy saving concepts were generated and their performance was evaluated. The experimental tests were performed on a truck in a climate chamber where the ambient temperatures, HVAC system fan speeds, air recirculation rate and inlet air temperatures were varied. The test data was used to build a one-dimensional simulation model in GT-ISE as well as a three-dimensional model in GT-TAITherm. The one-dimensional model was calibrated against 10 experimental tests and yielded an average relative error for the chosen temperature calibration parameters between 0.05% and 0.43%. The one-dimensional model showed that the largest energy loss was through air evacuation and air leakage, accounting for 70-90% of the input energy. The structural energy losses were primarily through the windshield and the side windows, accounting for 32% and 23% of the total structural losses respectively. Energy saving concepts in the form of low emissivity window glazing, double pane windows, xenon filled gas panel insulation and low levels of air recirculation were simulated. The best and most plausible combination of the aforementioned concepts yielded an average input energy decrease of 31.6%, air loss decrease of 32.9% and a structural loss decrease of 27.6% compared to the simulated base cases. The three-dimensional model was calibrated against one test case and yielded an average relative error of 0.15% for the chosen temperature calibration parameter. One energy saving concept in the form of double pane side windows in conjunction with low emissivity glazing on all windows was simulated. This concept had a slight impact in raising the average cabin air temperature and the interior surface temperatures of the windows. The surface temperature change resulted in a decrease of cold downdraught from the top roof window and the driver side window. In conclusion, the models work as intended providing a time efficient way of evaluating the energy performance of structural changes. In order to improve the performance, usefulness and accuracy of the models the initial values should be more exact. This can be achieved by standardised testing procedures as well as data collection with wind speed.

The vast majority of trucks in the European Union are reliant on fossil fuels as their primary mode of propulsion. In efforts to decarbonise the truck transport sector manufacturers are developing electrified trucks. An electrification may serve to reduce the tailpipe emissions of trucks, but it introduces a new challenge to supply the cabin with energy. This energy is primarily used to maintain a comfortable cabin climate for the driver and passenger. In order to maximise the range of an electric truck the cabin energy requirement needs to be minimised. This thesis evaluates the current energy performance of a Scania S20H cabin through experimental testing as well as simulations using the simulation software GT-SUITE. Based on the results from the tests and the models, energy saving concepts were generated and their performance was evaluated. The experimental tests were performed on a truck in a climate chamber where the ambient temperatures, HVAC system fan speeds, air recirculation rate and inlet air temperatures were varied. The test data was used to build a one-dimensional simulation model in GT-ISE as well as a three-dimensional model in GT-TAITherm. The one-dimensional model was calibrated against 10 experimental tests and yielded an average relative error for the chosen temperature calibration parameters between 0.05% and 0.43%. The one-dimensional model showed that the largest energy loss was through air evacuation and air leakage, accounting for 70-90% of the input energy. The structural energy losses were primarily through the windshield and the side windows, accounting for 32% and 23% of the total structural losses respectively. Energy saving concepts in the form of low emissivity window glazing, double pane windows, xenon filled gas panel insulation and low levels of air recirculation were simulated. The best and most plausible combination of the aforementioned concepts yielded an average input energy decrease of 31.6%, air loss decrease of 32.9% and a structural loss decrease of 27.6% compared to the simulated base cases. The three-dimensional model was calibrated against one test case and yielded an average relative error of 0.15% for the chosen temperature calibration parameter. One energy saving concept in the form of double pane side windows in conjunction with low emissivity glazing on all windows was simulated. This concept had a slight impact in raising the average cabin air temperature and the interior surface temperatures of the windows. The surface temperature change resulted in a decrease of cold downdraught from the top roof window and the driver side window. In conclusion, the models work as intended providing a time efficient way of evaluating the energy performance of structural changes. In order to improve the performance, usefulness and accuracy of the models the initial values should be more exact. This can be achieved by standardised testing procedures as well as data collection with wind speed.

Having the right surroundings and physical conditions in a workplace is crucial for ones ability to accomplish a job efficiently and staying physically and mentally healthy at the same time. A often overlooked part of public workplaces is the air quality and overall function of the ventilationsystem, which can make a substantial difference for the well-being of staff. In this study, the ventilationsystem of Rodengymnasiet, a high school in Norrtälje municipality has been examined and evaluated since staff at the school have some complains regarding the air quality at their workplace. The study was conducted through preliminary reviews of blueprints for the building and discussion with the staff about specifics for their complaints, where most complaints were related to uncomfortable temperatures in offices. Then measurements of humidity, air temperature and CO₂-levels were taken in several offices and classrooms during regular workdays with normal attendance. This, in combination with visual inspection of the ventilationsystem and reviewing of the latest results of inspection gave the results that no obvious faults in the ventilation seem to exist, and thusly the complaints and feelings of uncomfortableness seem to not stem from flawed ventilation. A simplified estimation of the ventilationsystem energy usage was also made from the information available and inspected state of the components in the system. The most important conclusion made from these results is that Rodengymnasiet seem to have a very well functioning ventilationsystem, and the suggestions made in this study only serve to add a small degree of optimization to a already well constructed and well maintained system.