Since the late 20th century, nature-based tourism, an alternative to mass tourism with a focus on natural environments, has steadily grown in popularity. Nature-based tourism areas are considered a platform for informal education and exemplify principles of environmental stewardship and conservation. Iceland, an island nation in the North Atlantic, is one area of the world that has seen dramatic growth in its nature-based tourism industry in recent years; tourists are drawn to Iceland in numbers five times the total population of the Country. The pressures of economic development have resulted in the continued promotion of Icelandic tourism, and, subsequently, the rapid, sometimes detrimental, development of tourist destinations. This study used a triangulated mixed methods approach including post-visitation assessments, mobile eye-tracking (MET), GPS footpath collection, and observational analysis to assess visitor experience and behavior in two popular Icelandic tourist destinations: Sólheimajökull and Þingvellir. Through the use of MET, a greater understanding of visitor behavior was developed in these areas. Results suggest that the infrastructure development which has occurred at Þingvellir is effective at managing tourist behavior; however, the less developed and more authentic environment of Sólheimajökull appeals more to visitor expectations of Icelandic tourism. Observing the strengths and weaknesses of the study sites revealed ways to guide the future development of the sites in ways that promote both education and conservation. Furthermore, the critical evaluation of the original methodology developed for this study also presents a technique by which the development of other nature-based tourism destinations can be assessed.

In urban karst areas, such as the City of Bowling Green, Kentucky and the Tampa Bay Metropolitan Area, groundwater quality faces a variety of threats. The development of residential, commercial, and industrial landuse types allows for a wide variety of groundwater pollutants to enter the karst groundwater systems. Various different models and indices have attempted evaluative approaches to identify issues in urban karst areas, but the methods vary by location and lack a focus on urban karst groundwater quality. There also exists a lack of a data-driven approach that is able to capture short- and long-term changes in threats to groundwater quality as a result of urbanization. The overall purpose of this study was to develop a holistic, data-driven evaluation toolbox with threat, vulnerability, and monitoring assessment tools for urban karst groundwater systems to better determine the possible threats, data collection needs, monitoring parameters, and analytical approaches needed to ensure groundwater quality is maintained in urban karst regions. This study focused on: 1) determining what indicators, parameters, resolution, and data quality need to be prioritized to create an effective, holistic monitoring framework for urban karst groundwater, and 2) developing an effective assessment and evaluative tools for urban karst groundwater quality sites using historic and modern data in an urban karst setting. The outcomes include an Urban Karst Aquifer Resource Evaluation (UKARE) Toolbox with a Threat, Vulnerability, and Monitoring evaluation tools that were applied and validated through application of the Toolbox using case studies in the City of Bowling Green, Kentucky and the Tampa Bay Metropolitan Area in Florida. The results demonstrate the universal applicability of the UKARE Toolbox to different urban karst sites and its effectiveness at scoring for threats and vulnerabilities, as well as identifying potential monitoring sites through primary data collection of water quality parameters and emerging pathogens at over 150 sites between both study areas. The final results of this study are useful to develop monitoring and management plans through a standardized scoring and evaluation tool in order to influence urban karst groundwater monitoring and management.

The potential of a soil to immobilize heavy metal ions is dependent on the presence of adsorption sites, and the stability of metal species over the range of geochemical conditions present in the soil over time. Lead (Pb) is a cumulative toxin that is enriched in much of the urban pedosphere due to historical use of Pb-based paint and Pb-amended gasoline. Because in-situ remediation of Pb is possible if the bioavailable fraction can be rendered inert, understanding Pb-sorbent interactions is necessary to accurately and efficiently alter Pb speciation in soils. The objectives of this study are to 1) determine efficient ways to predict Pb behavior at the field scale, and 2) characterize microscale controls on Pb speciation. A combination of geospatial and analytical tools has been used across a variety of spatial scales to provide the first multiscale analysis of microenvironment impact on Pb speciation in soils. This research investigated Pb distribution at the field scale (in Burlington, VT), and mobility at the microscale. The field-scale study has shown that the relationship between total Pb and bioaccessible Pb is not linear, in stark contrast to the existing conceptual model of this relationship. It was determined that the disproportional influence of fine-fraction Pb in low total-Pb soils results in elevated bioavailability. Microscale investigations determined that there is a positive correlation between the density of reactive microenvironments and the release of Pb from contaminated soil, and that altered distributions of microenvironments significantly alters the rate of Pb release. This research identifies specific mechanisms controlling Pb behavior in soils at both the field and the microscale, which can be used to inform improvements to implementation of remediation.

Agrochemical use has been increasing in both developing and the developed nations. The unsafe handling and use of agrochemicals can lead to accumulation of hazardous chemicals in the body, causing adverse effects on health. This quantitative cross sectional study sought to understand the level of awareness, practices, and perceptions of safe chemical handling by agrochemical using the Theory of Planned Behavior. This study was conducted among 260 farmers in Plateau State, Nigeria. Data on background knowledge and practices of safe agrochemical handling by farmers were collected using a structured paper based, interviewer-€administered questionnaire. Descriptive statistics revealed that the most practiced precautions by participants were washing work clothes separately (56.9%) and taking a shower soon after application of agrochemicals (53.6%). Findings from this study suggest that farmers had good knowledge of safe use of agrochemicals and majority of them 91.9% were knowledgeable about the possible effects of these chemicals on health. A Chi square test showed a statistically significant association between marital status and engagement in safe agrochemical handling X2 (2, N = 260) = 7.34, p <. 05 and level of education X2 (4, N = 260) = 35.12, p <. 05. Results of Binary logistic regression indicated that the variable training on safe agrochemical handling with an odds ratio 8.31 was a good predictor for safe agrochemical handling An important finding in this study however was a low level of adoption for the use of Personal Protective Equipment. Priority should be given to developing safety educational and certification programs for farmers with emphasis on the safe handling practices.

The use of pharmaceutical products has steadily increased in the United States from 2 billion prescriptions in 1999 to 3.9 billion in 2009. Half of patients do not comply with the recommended prescription regimen and dispose of unused drugs in the environment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and many researchers have highlighted the human-health risks associated with improperly disposing of pharmaceutical products. This quantitative cross-sectional study examined the potential correlations between people's actual disposal practices and their knowledge of the impact of disposal practices on the environment and human health, and availability of disposal options. The conceptual framework selected for this study comprised 2 models: the health belief model and the theory of planned behavior. Respondents to an online survey were 485 residents of the northeast United States, polled from the general population. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to model responses from the dependent variable actual disposal practice (ADP) across the independent variables, and analysis of variance explored whether ADP differed across demographic variables. Statistically significant associations emerged among individuals' knowledge of environment and human-health impact, recommended disposal practices, disposal options, and that person's likelihood to practice recommended disposal. Demographic variables did not impact disposal behavior. To promote positive social change, it is recommended that policymakers plan and implement the expansion of convenient drug disposal options, as well as information campaigns on proper disposal practices. In parallel, health care professionals should stress to their patients the importance of complying with prescribed regimens, thus minimizing the amount of unused or expired medications.

Obesity is a public health problem. The global obesity problem has been attributed to unhealthy diet, inactivity, and hereditary factors. However, phthalates may also contribute to the obesity epidemic. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine whether there was a relationship between exposure to phthalates and obesity among adults 18 years and older in the United States. The theoretical framework was based on the socioecological model. The quantitative, cross-sectional design, and data analysis were based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011-2012 database. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the association between phthalates, obesity, and other independent variables (phthalates exposure, socioeconomic status, gender, age, race/ethnicity, physical activity and place of residence) According to study results, exposure to phthalates does not have a statistically significant effect on the odds of obesity. In terms of the influence of the sociodemographic variables such as race, age, and gender on the relationship between total phthalate exposure and obesity, only race showed statistical significance at p < 0.05. In addition, physical activity did not have influence on relationship between total phthalate exposure and obesity among adults 18 years and older in the United States. Despite the lack of significant relationships, the results of this study are useful in addressing the concerns about the exacerbation of obesity. The results of this study could enhance academic research by showing the effect of phthalate chemical exposure, age, gender, race/ethnicity, physical activity, income, and educational level on obesity.

Communities near nuclear power plants are at potential risk from natural and man-made failures at the nuclear power plants located within those communities. This study explored the concerns and rationalizations of residents of a community who live within a 10-mile evacuation zone of the nuclear power plant located there. Using the general theory of deliberative democracy, the purpose of this qualitative study was to understand and explore why individuals continue to live close to nuclear power plants. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 15 individuals who live within a 10- mile radius of a nuclear power plant in the western US. These interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed using a modified Van Kaam procedure. Findings indicated that members of the community had concerns that natural or man-made disasters could lead to catastrophic failure of the nuclear power plant but rationalized living in proximity. Another key finding was that the community itself was supported by the revenue generated from the plant which led many of the participants to live in the community and this contributed to their rationalizing for why they should live close to the plant. The social change implications of this study included recommendations to mayors, city councils, and regulatory bodies to provide more information about nuclear power plants to communities to help them cope with fear and feelings of helplessness. Residents living near nuclear power plants would benefit from the recommendations made in this study because it would help them understand the risks of living near nuclear power plants.

Mental health and obesity were ranked among the health priorities of the 2014 and 2017 Community Health Needs Assessments in Kent County, Michigan. Exposure to nature is correlated to improved health outcomes across a variety of morbidities including poor mental health and obesity. This cross-sectional study set within the frameworks of attention restoration theory, environmental health, and pathways to health benefits from nature assessed county survey data including self-reported nature exposures/interactions separated into 3 domain areas: access to nature, attitudes about nature, and physical activity in nature or in nature-based activities. Binary logistic regression analyses of the 653 respondents found that those who self-reported higher frequency of physical activity in nature or in nature-based activities possessed lower odds of also reporting poor mental health (p < .001, OR .652, 95% CI .535, .795) and obesity (p < .001, OR .666, 95% CI .548, .808) with each ascending level of agreement with the physical activity statement question. Ascending levels of agreement with the ease of access to nature statement question was found to be associated with lower odds of poor mental health (p < .001, OR .585, 95% CI .470, .797); however, no correlation was found between this variable and obesity status. The attitudes about nature domain statement questions were not consistently found to be associated with either mental health or obesity status. The significantly associated independent nature variables demonstrated weak effects (Nagelkerke R� < .300) on their respectively linked health outcomes. These findings may equip public health officials with information to develop more effective interventions for addressing mental health and obesity in their respective communities.

Uranium contamination of the subsurface remains a significant problem at the Department of Energy Hanford site. A series of column experiments were conducted on Hanford sediment saturated with simulated groundwater to study the effects of aqueous bicarbonate and microbial growth on the mobility of Uranium. Spectral induced polarization (SIP) measurements in the columns were conducted concurrently with pore water sampling in order to monitor changes occurring inside the sediment after the initiation of microbial growth induced by glucose injection. The microbial growth caused significant increases in the real component of the complex conductivity and is the result of ion release into the pore fluid. In addition, an increase in the imaginary conductivity was observed at low frequencies (Hz), which may be due to biotic processes. Due to the use of natural sediment, the SIP response is complex and difficult to understand. However, results across all columns with microbial growth are consistent. Pore water testing showed that microbial growth leads to sudden increases in uranium concentrations; however, microbes also eventually create reducing conditions in the sediment which transforms soluble U6+ to insoluble U4+. Bicarbonate leads to significant increases in uranium concentrations likely due to the formation of mobile uranyl carbonate complexes. For the purposes of field scale remediation, microbial growth in an oxic environment should be avoided. However, within reducing conditions present in the deep vadose zone and phreatic zone, microbial growth seems unlikely to significantly increase uranium mobility.

This dissertation examines the public health impacts of a large dam project on a downstream community using the framework of Syndemic Theory. The particular focus is the Belo Monte Dam, located in the Brazilian Amazon, and its impact on the community of Gurupá, Pará. At the present time the Belo Monte Dam, which is nearing completion, stands out in scale as being the world’s third largest dam complex. Gurupá is a community well known (and well-studied) in the social science literature as Amazon Town. The aims of this study are to assess the pre-existing public health of Gurupá, as well as the current and future health impacts associated with dam construction by (a) assembling a comparative list of known health impacts created by the construction of hydroelectric dams world-wide, (b) conducting ethnographic research focusing on the public health system in Gurupá, and (c) integrating these data using Syndemic Theory to create a heuristic model of health impacts to be used by public health workers to assist in the mitigation of negative public health impacts. This research is significant to the advancement of the scholarly literature in that it uses syndemic theory in a new way, thereby broadening the relevance and applicability of the approach. The syndemic framework postulates that the concurrent presence of two or more ill-health conditions in a population can lead to a dynamic interaction in which each of the conditions shapes and worsens the other. The widespread presence of two or more poor health conditions within a population can lead to an aggregate of health issues that collectively and substantially lower the health status of the entire community. By studying communities worldwide that have dealt with the aftermath of dam construction, this dissertation creates a model suggesting the high likelihood of certain diseases and socio-environmental factors combining and leading to ill health in a syndemic fashion. The model can then be tailored to the specifics of this case study. Gurupá is the focus of the study. The community is unique for the region as it has been the subject of several ethnographies since the 1940s. This dissertation makes use of these decades of research as a base line to evaluate current changes in the public health system as impacted by the dam. With this base-line as a starting point, the study combines a review of epidemiological data, ethnographic observations, interviews with public health professionals and the local population, and a health and food frequency survey to identify what factors are most detrimental to the community’s health in reference to the Belo Monte dam construction. The results of this study identify risks from increases in intestinal parasites (due to poor water quality and sanitation), increases in rates of malaria and dengue fever, increases in potential stressors (e.g. from increases in violence and drugs associated with migration of new people into the community), and a surge in sexually transmitted infections. As research shows, these factors combine to create a breakdown in community cohesion, which has been a key factor in keeping Gurupá healthier than its surrounding towns. Community cohesion is described as a mutual trust and camaraderie among community members that provide a safety net against common problems. Community cohesion also allows for a sense of social control that is not attainable when community members are strangers or do not trust each other. If there is a lack of trust within the community then it is less likely that individuals will do things based on the greater good. As seen with previous studies, syndemic theory usually examines one public health issue and postulates about the different factors that go into its proliferation. This research instead takes a known risk factor to population health, dam construction, and uses syndemic theory to hypothesize about all the potential impacts so as to create a model that can be used to mitigate said impacts. Studying the impacts of dams and their syndemic effects on populations tie previous environmental, anthropological, public health, and biological studies together showing how all factors combine and mutually impact each other, which provides the foundation for a nonlinear approach to solving Amazon specific public health issues.