No description available.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide and atrial fibrillation (AF) is a prevalent arrhythmia associated with increased risk of mortality and morbidity. Despite improved outcome in both diseases, there is a need to further describe the prevalence, outcome and management of CAD in patients with concomitant AF. AF was a common finding among patients with MI, with 16% having new-onset, paroxysmal or chronic AF. Patients post-MI with concomitant AF, regardless of subtype, were at increased risk of composite cardiovascular outcome of mortality, MI or ischemic stroke, including mortality and ischemic stroke alone. No major difference in outcome was observed between AF subtypes. At discharge, an oral anticoagulant was prescribed to 27% of the patients with MI and AF undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Aspirin or clopidogrel plus warfarin versus dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin plus clopidogrel were associated with similar 0-90-day and lower 91-365-day risk of cardiovascular outcome, without increased risk of major bleeding events. Triple therapy with aspirin, clopidogrel plus warfarin versus dual antiplatelet therapy was associated with non-significant lower risk of cardiovascular outcome, but with increased risk of bleeding events. Treatment with renin-angiotensin system (RAS) inhibitors post-MI was associated with lower risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in patients with and without congestive heart failure and/or AF. However, RAS inhibition in patients without AF was not associated with lower risk of new-onset AF. Approximately 1 in 3 patients undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) had pre- or postoperative AF. Patients with AF, regardless of subtype, were at higher risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality and congestive heart failure. Furthermore, postoperative AF was associated with higher risk of recurrent AF. In conclusion, AF was a common finding in the setting of MI and CABG. AF, irrespectively if in the setting of MI or CABG was associated with higher risk of ischemic events and mortality. Also, postoperative AF was associated with recurrent AF. Oral anticoagulants post-MI and PCI in patients with AF was underutilized, however, optimal antithrombotic therapy is still unknown. RAS inhibition post-MI seems beneficial, however, it was not associated with lower incidence of new-onset AF.

No description available.

Objective: To evaluate the tendencies of utilization of Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and Angiotensin II receptors antagonists in Lithuania during 2005-2007 years. Methods: MEDLINE database was searched to identify and evaluate all literature relating to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics of Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and Angiotensin II antagonists. Utilization data of Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (plain and combinations) and Angiotensin II antagonists (plain and combinations) in Lithuania over three years (2005 – 2007) period were obtained from SoftDent, JSC database. The retail prices of agents acting on the Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone selected from Reimbursed Medical Products Reference Prices Lists of 2005, 2006, 2007 years. Drugs were classified according to the Anatomic Therapeutic Chemical system and use was quantified in terms of defined daily doses (ATC/DDD). Consumption of Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (plain and combinations) and Angiotensin II antagonists (plain and combinations) was calculated by DDD methodology and expressed as DDD per 1.000 inhabitants per day. Pharmacoeconomic calculations were done according to cost minimization and reference price methodologies. Results: According to meta-analysis, number of included studies (69 publications) that evaluated various treatment and head-to-head efficacy comparisons found in literature no consistent differential effects of ACEIs versus ARBs on... [to full text] / Tikslas: atlikti Angiotenziną konvertuojančių fermentų inhibitorių ir Angiotenzino II antagonistų suvartojimo tendencijų Lietuvoje analizę 2005 – 2007 metais. Metodai: Duomenys apie Angiotenziną konvertuojančio fermento inhibitorių ir Angiotenzino II antagonistų farmakokinetines ir farmakodinamines savybes buvo surinkti iš MEDLINE elektroninių duomenų šaltinių. Duomenys apie AKF inhibitorių (paprastų ir sudėtinių) ir Angiotenzino II antagonistų (paprastų ir sudėtinių) suvartojimą Lietuvoje per 2005 – 2007 metus gauti iš UAB SoftDent duomenų bazės. Renino-angiotenzino-aldosterono sistemą veikiančių vaistų mažmeninės kainos išrinktos iš Lietuvos kompensuojamų vaistinių preparatų 2005, 2006, 2007 metų kainynų. Vaistai buvo suklasifikuoti pagal anatominę terapinę cheminę (ATC) klasifikaciją. AKFI inhibitorių (paprastų ir sudėtinių) ir Angiotenzino II antagonistų (paprastų ir sudėtinių) suvartojimas buvo vertinamas pagal apibrėžtos dienos dozės (DDD – daily defined dose) metodiką, o duomenys įvertinti pagal DDD skaičių, tenkantį 1000 gyventojų per vieną dieną. AKF inhibitorių (paprastų ir sudėtinių) ir Angiotenzino II antagonistų (paprastų ir sudėtinių) farmakoekonominei analizei atlikti buvo taikytas kainų mažinimo bei standartinės kainos nustatymo metodai. Rezultatai: Vadovaujantis metaanalizių, įvairių klinikinių tyrimų 69 publikacijomis bei išsamia AKF inhibitorių ir Angiotenzino II antagonisų efektyvumo palyginimo analize galima teigti, kad šių vaistų grupių poveikis... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

Organic nitrates, such as nitroglycerine (NTG), are widely used for their potent vasodilator capacity in the management of coronary artery disease and heart failure. Unfortunately, their beneficial effect is rapidly lost due to the development of nitrate tolerance, which is translated by an impaired vasorelaxation to NTG and an increased oxidative stress production. Although the mechanisms of the development of nitrate tolerance are still not fully elucidated, much interest has been focused in treating nitrate-receiving patients together with other drugs in order to overcome the development of nitrate tolerance. The Nitric Oxide generating enzyme, eNOS, and the superoxide anion generating enzyme, NAD(P)H oxidase, have been suggested to play a role in the development of nitrate tolerance. The aim of this study was to analyse the underlying mechanism by which ramipril, an ACE inhibitor and rosuvastatin, a new molecule of the statin class, are able to protect against the development of nitrate tolerance in the aortas isolated from rats, wild-type (wt) and eNOS-/- mice. <p>These results show that ramipril as well as rosuvastatin are able to protect against the development of nitrate tolerance in the wt and eNOS-/- mice aortas suggesting that eNOS is not necessary for their protective effect. The aortas from nitrate tolerant rats and mice showed a significant increase in the NAD(P)H oxidase activation compared to the aortas from the control and from the co-treated ramipril+NTG or rosuvastatin+NTG animals. In line with these findings were the results obtained by RT-PCR analysis: the mRNA expression of the different subunits of the NAD(P)H oxidase, such as gp91phox, p22phox, were significantly decreased after rosuvastatin or ramipril treatment in wt and eNOS-/- mice aortas. Apocynin, the NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor was also able to inhibit the development of nitrate tolerance in the rat and mouse aortas. <p>In conclusion, these results suggest that rosuvastatin and ramipril are able to protect against the development of nitrate tolerance by counteracting the nitrate-induced oxidative stress. The mechanism of protection involves a direct interaction with the NAD(P)H oxidase pathway and seems to be completely independent of the eNOS pathway. <p> / Doctorat en sciences pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

En France, le syndrome coronaire aigu (SCA) représente environ 100 000 hospitalisations par an. Il est recommandé, en prévention secondaire du SCA, un traitement combinant quatre classes médicamenteuses : bêtabloquants, antiagrégants plaquettaires, statines, et inhibiteurs de l’enzyme de conversion ou antagonistes des récepteurs à l’angiotensine II(combinaison BASI). L’objectif de ce travail était l’étude, en situation réelle de soin et en population générale, de l’utilisation et de l’effectivité de la combinaison thérapeutique recommandée en prévention secondaire du SCA. Nous avons d’abord exploré le potentiel représenté par les bases de données médicoadministratives françaises pour cette évaluation. Nous avons ensuite étudié l’utilisation de la combinaison BASI : 42 % des patients étaient traités par la combinaison BASI en post-SCA et 57 % d’entre eux étaient encore traités à deux ans ; la persistance au traitement était plus faible chez les patients âgés, chez ceux ayant d’autres co-morbidités et chez ceux ayant eu un SCA de nature autre qu’un infarctus du myocarde.Nous avons enfin étudié l’effectivité de la combinaison BASI : la combinaison BASI était la combinaison thérapeutique la plus effective à long terme après un SCA chez les patients avec antécédent d’insuffisance cardiaque ; chez les patients sans antécédent de ce type la combinaison sans bêtabloquants n’était pas associée à une augmentation du risque.Ces résultats permettent de reconsidérer l’intérêt à long terme de l’ensemble de la combinaison BASI en post-SCA chez tous les patients et mettent en avant la nécessité de renforcer les stratégies d’éducation thérapeutique. / Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) causes approximately 100,000 hospitalisations per year in France. In secondary prevention of ACS, guidelines advocate pharmacological treatment combining four drug classes: beta-blockers, antiplatelet agents, statins and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (recommended combination).The aim of this work was to study, in real life and among the general population, the use and the effectiveness of the recommended combination for secondary prevention of ACS.Firstly, we explored the potential represented by the French claims databases in this context. Secondly, we studied the use of the recommended combination: 42% of patients were treated with the recommended combination in post-ACS and 57% of them were still treated two years after; persistence to combination was lower in older patients, in those with other comorbidities and those who had an ACS different of myocardial infarction. Thirdly, we studied the effectiveness of the recommended combination: the recommended combination was the most effective combination therapy at long-term in post-ACS patients with history of heart failure; in patients without such history the combination without betablockers was not associated with an increased risk. These results could help reconsidering the long-term interest of the full recommended combination in all ACS patients and highlight the need to strengthen patient education strategies.

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) catalyzes the conversion of angiotensin I (Ang I) to angiotensin II (AngII). ACE also cleaves the terminal dipeptide of vasodilating hormone bradykinin (a nonapeptide) to its inactive form. Therefore, inhibition of ACE is one of the treatments of hypertension. A number of ACE inhibitory antihypertensive drugs are known. ‘Oxidative stress’ is another disease state caused by an imbalance in the production of oxidants and antioxidants in the body. A number of studies suggest that hypertension and oxidative stress are interdependent. Therefore, ACE inhibitors having antioxidant property are considered beneficial for the treatment of hypertension. Generally, selenium compounds exhibit better antioxidant behavior than their sulfur analogues. Therefore, we have synthesized a number of selenium analogues of captopril, an ACE inhibitor used as antihypertensive drug. Similar to captopril, the selenium analogues of captopril exhibited excellent ACE inhibition property. It was observed that these compounds are very good scavengers of peroxynitrite (PN), a strong oxidizing as well as nitrating agent found in vivo. The orientation of the chiral centers in these compounds was found to be very important for their ACE inhibition behavior. A number of selenocysteine- and cysteine-containing dipeptides and tripeptides were synthesized as inhibitors of ACE. It was observed that the ACE inhibition properties of these compounds depend on various factors such as orientation of the amino functionality, substitution at the C-terminal of the inhibitor, ring size of the proline moiety or the availability of the terminal acid group in carboxylate form etc. A structure-function correlation was drawn for the ACE inhibition properties of the peptide-based selenium-or sulfur-containing compounds. These studies reveal that the antioxidant properties do not depend on the side-chain functional groups, but they depend on the availability of selenium or sulfur centers. Selenium-based compounds were found to be better antioxidants than those containing sulfur moieties. In conclusion, the present study reveals that the replacement of sulfur atom in captopril and its analogues by selenium enhances the antioxidant activity. The reaction products of lactoperoxidase (LPO)-catalyzed iodination of Ang II were separated and characterized. It was observed that LPO-catalyzed iodination of Ang II takes place preferentially at the tyrosine residue. LPO-catalyzed iodination of Ang II is inhibited by commonly used antithyroid drugs such as MMI, MTU, PTU and also by antihypertensive drug captopril. It was also observed that the monoiodo Ang I is a better substrate for ACE compared to the natural substrate Ang I. The site of nitration of Ang II by PN was also determined by MS-MS analyses. This study reveals that the nitration takes place at the tyrosine residue.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). / The abysmal five year pancreatic cancer survival rate of less than 6% highlights the need for new treatments for this deadly malignancy. Cytotoxic drugs normally target rapidly dividing cancer cells but unfortunately often target stem cells resulting in toxicity. This warrants the development of compounds that selectively target tumor cells. An inhibitor of the mitotic kinase, MPS1, which has been shown to be more selective towards cancer cells than non-tumorigenic cells, shows promise but its effects on stem cells has not been investigated. MPS1 is an essential component of the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint and is proposed to be up-regulated in cancer cells to maintain chromosomal segregation errors within survivable limits. Inhibition of MPS1 kinase causes cancer cell death accompanied by massive aneuploidy. Our studies demonstrate that human adipose stem cells (ASCs) and can tolerate higher levels of a small molecule MPS1 inhibitor than pancreatic cancer cells. In contrast to PANC-1 cancer cells, ASCs and telomerase-immortalized pancreatic ductal epithelial cells did not exhibit elevated chromosome mis-segregation after treatment with the MPS1 inhibitor for 72hrs. In contrast, PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cells exhibited a large increase in chromosomal mis-segregation under similar conditions. Furthermore, growth of ASCs was minimally affected post treatment whereas PANC-1 cells were severely growth impaired suggesting a favorable therapeutic index. Our studies, demonstrate that MPS1 inhibition is selective towards pancreatic cancer cells and that stem cells are less affected in vitro. These data suggest MPS1 inhibition should be further investigated as a new treatment approach in pancreatic cancer.

In dieser Arbeit wird über die Entwicklung von neuartigen PET-Tracern für die In-vivo-Bildgebung von Cystein-Cathepsinen, Lysyloxidasen und Transglutaminase 2 als tumorassoziierte Matrix-modifizierende Enzyme berichtet. Dies beinhaltet im Einzelnen die Identifikation von Leitverbindungen, die Synthese und biochemische Charakterisierung von Analoga, die Etablierung von Methoden für deren Radiomarkierung sowie radiopharmakologische Untersuchungen auf molekularer, zellulärer und organismischer Ebene. In Kapitel 1 dieser Habilitationsschrift wird zunächst auf die Bedeutung der extrazellulären Matrix für die Tumorprogression eingegangen, wobei auch der Entwicklungsstatus Matrix-gerichteter Bildgebungssonden gestreift wird. Da die Hemmung der genannten Enzyme über die bildgebende funktionelle Diagnostik von Tumoren hinaus großes Potential im Hinblick auf die Pharmakotherapie neoplastischer Erkrankungen aufweist, wurde am Schluss von Kapitel 1 ebenso die generelle Bedeutung der PET- und SPECT-Bildgebung für den Prozess der Arzneistoffentwicklung dargelegt, da eine weitere Motivation dieser Arbeit in der Entwicklung von Sonden zur bildgebungsgestützten Therapie lag. Im Kapitel 2 wird eine Übersicht über strukturelle und funktionelle Aspekte der aufgeführten Matrix-modifizierenden Enzyme unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer jeweiligen Funktion im Tumorgeschehen gegeben. Daran anschließend wird in den Kapiteln 3 und 4 der Stand zur Entwicklung von Inhibitoren bzw. Bildgebungssonden für diese Enzyme im Überblick dargestellt. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit werden im Kapitel 5 präsentiert, wobei die sich Gliederung dieses Kapitels an den publizierten Arbeiten orientiert, die in diese kumulative Habilitationsschrift Eingang gefunden haben. Es handelt sich dabei im Wesentlichen um eine Kurzdarstellung der veröffentlichten Originalartikel, die durch weiterführende Aspekte ergänzt wurden, um den Bezug zwischen den einzelnen Arbeiten herzustellen. Kapitel 6 gibt eine kurze Gesamtzusammenfassung der Arbeit, an das Literaturverzeichnis in Kapitel 7 schließt sich mit Kapitel 8 die kumulative Zusammenstellung der zum Thema der Arbeit vom Autor veröffentlichten Zeitschriftenartikel an.:Vorbemerkungen und Zielstellung 1 1. Einführung 3 1.1. Bedeutung der extrazellulären Matrix für die Tumorprogression 3 1.2. Radiomarkierte Sonden zur Bildgebung der tumorassoziierten extrazellulären Matrix 14 1.3. Bedeutung der radiotracerbasierten Bildgebung in der Wirkstoffentwicklung 19 2. Strukturelle und biochemische Aspekte von Matrix-modifizierenden Enzymen: Cystein-Cathepsine, Lysyloxidasen und Transglutaminase 2 24 2.1. Cystein-Cathepsine 24 2.2. Funktionen von Cystein-Cathepsinen in der Tumorprogression 27 2.3. Lysyloxidasen 32 2.4. Funktionen von Lysyloxidasen in der Tumorprogression 36 2.5. Transglutaminase 2 42 2.6. Funktionen der Transglutaminase 2 in der Tumorprogression 46 3. Stand der Entwicklung von Inhibitoren der betrachteten Matrix-modifizierenden Enzyme 50 3.1. Inhibitoren von Cystein-Cathepsinen 50 3.2. Inhibitoren von Lysyloxidasen 61 3.3. Inhibitoren der Transglutaminase 2 64 4. Stand der Entwicklung von Bildgebungssonden für die betrachteten Matrix-modifizierenden Enzyme 70 4.1. Sonden für Cystein-Cathepsine 70 4.2. Sonden für Lysyloxidasen 74 4.3. Sonden für die Transglutaminase 2 76 5. Eigene Arbeiten zur Entwicklung von Radiotracern einschließlich der Identifikation, Synthese und Evaluierung geeigneter Liganden zur Bildgebung der vorgestellten Targetklassen 80 5.1. Entwicklung zu Cystein-Cathepsine 80 5.1.1. Auswahl der Leitverbindungen 80 5.1.2. Synthese und radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines 18F-markierten Azadipeptidnitrils 81 5.1.3. Synthese und radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines 11C-markierten Azadipeptidnitrils 87 5.1.4. Cyanohydrazide als potentielle chemoselektive Markierungsbausteine 91 5.1.5. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 94 5.2. Lysyloxidasen 95 5.2.1. Auswahl der Leitverbindungen 95 5.2.2. Entwicklung einer Methode zur regioselektiven Markierung von Peptiden mit Fluor-18 97 5.2.3. Synthese und Konformationsanalyse eines N-Telopeptid-abgeleiteten Cyclopeptids 103 5.2.4. Radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung von N-Telopeptid-abgeleiteten Peptiden im Melanom-Xenograft-Mausmodell 109 5.2.5. Radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines N-Telopeptid-abgeleiteten Peptides in murinen Mammakarzinommodellen 114 5.2.6. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 118 5.3. Transglutaminase 2 121 5.3.1. Auswahl der Leitverbindungen 121 5.3.2. Entwicklung von Assaymethoden und Synthese der dafür benötigten Substratverbindungen 123 5.3.3. Synthese und in-vitro-pharmakologische Charakterisierung von Nε-Acryloyllysinpiperaziden als irreversible Inhibitoren 137 5.3.4. 18F-Markierung und radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines Nε-Acryloyllysinpiperazids als aktivitätsbasierte Sonde 152 5.3.5. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 167 6. Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen / Summary and Conclusions 171 7. Literaturverzeichnis 177 8. Kumulative Zusammenstellung der publizierten Arbeiten 243 8.1. Veröffentlichte Arbeiten zur Entwicklung Cystein-Cathepsin-gerichteter Radiotracer und Cyanohydraziden als potentielle Markierungsbausteine 243 8.1.1. Übersichtsartikel: “Cysteine cathepsins: their role in tumor progression and recent trends in the development of imaging probes” 243 8.1.2. Originalartikel: “Synthesis and Radiopharmacological Characterisation of a Fluorine-18-Labelled Azadipeptide Nitrile as a Potential PET Tracer for in vivo Imaging of Cysteine Cathepsins” 280 8.1.3. Originalartikel: “Synthesis and Radiopharmacological Characterisation of an 11C‐labelled azadipeptide nitrile as potential PET tracer for imaging of cysteine cathepsins” 304 8.1.4. Originalartikel: “Synthesis and X-ray Crystal Structure of N’-Cyano-N,N’-dimethyl-4-nitrobenzohydrazide” 319 8.2. Veröffentlichte Arbeiten zur Entwicklung Lysyloxidase-gerichteter Radiotracer und zur selektiven 18F-Markierung Lysin-enthaltender Peptide 328 8.2.1. Originalartikel: “Site-selective radiolabeling of peptides by 18F-fluorobenzoylation with [18F]SFB in solution and on solid phase: a comparative study” 328 8.2.2. Originalartikel: “Synthesis, 18F-labelling and radiopharmacological characterisation of the C-terminal 30mer of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin as a potential claudin-targeting peptide” 350 8.2.3. Originalartikel: “Cyclopeptides containing the DEKS motif as conformationally restricted collagen telopeptide analogues: synthesis and conformational analysis” 388 8.2.4. Originalartikel: “ Evaluation of Fluorine-18-Labeled α1(I)-N-Telopeptide Analogs as Substrate-Based Radiotracers for PET Imaging of Melanoma-Associated Lysyl Oxidase” 428 8.2.5. Originalartikel: “Targeting lysyl oxidase for molecular imaging in breast cancer” 453 8.3. Veröffentlichte Arbeiten zur Entwicklung von TGase 2-gerichteten Radiotracern sowie von Substratverbindungen und Assaymethoden für dieses Enzym 470 8.3.1. Übersichtsartikel: “Tissue transglutaminase: An emerging target for therapy and imaging” 470 8.3.2. Originalartikel: ”Synthesis and Kinetic Characterisation of Water‐Soluble Fluorogenic Acyl Donors for Transglutaminase 2“ 487 8.3.3. Originalartikel: “Solution-phase synthesis of the fluorogenic TGase 2 acyl donor Z-Glu(HMC)-Gly-OH and its use for inhibitor and amine substrate characterisation” 543 8.3.4. Originalartikel: “A fluorescence anisotropy-based assay for determining the activity of tissue transglutaminase” 562 8.3.5. Originalartikel: “Nε-Acryloyllysine Piperazides as Irreversible Inhibitors of Transglutaminase 2: Synthesis, Structure–Activity Relationships, and Pharmacokinetic Profiling” 589 / This work reports on the development of novel PET tracers for in vivo imaging of cysteine cathepsins, lysyl oxidases and transglutaminase 2 as tumour-associated matrix-modifying enzymes. Specifically, this includes the identification of lead compounds, the synthesis and biochemical characterisation of analogues, the establishment of methods for their radiolabelling, and radiopharmacological studies at the molecular, cellular and organismal levels. Chapter 1 of this habilitation thesis first discusses the importance of the extracellular matrix for tumour progression: In addition, the development status of matrix-directed imaging probes is reviewed. Since the inhibition of the aforementioned enzymes has great potential beyond the imaging functional diagnosis of tumours with regard to the pharmacotherapy of neoplastic diseases, the general importance of PET and SPECT imaging for the drug development process was also outlined at the end of chapter 1, since a further motivation of this thesis was provided by the potential use of probes for imaging-assisted therapy. In chapter 2, an overview of structural and functional aspects of the listed matrix-modifying enzymes is given with particular reference to their respective function in tumour processes. This is followed by an overview of the status of the development of inhibitors and imaging probes for these enzymes in chapters 3 and 4. The results of the work are presented in chapter 5, whereby the structure of this chapter is oriented towards the published work that has found its way into this cumulative habilitation thesis. This chapter is essentially a brief presentation of the original published articles, supplemented by further aspects to establish the relationship between the individual papers. Chapter 6 provides a brief overall summary of the thesis, and the bibliography in Chapter 7 is followed by Chapter 8, which provides a cumulative compilation of the journal articles published by the author on the topic of the thesis.:Vorbemerkungen und Zielstellung 1 1. Einführung 3 1.1. Bedeutung der extrazellulären Matrix für die Tumorprogression 3 1.2. Radiomarkierte Sonden zur Bildgebung der tumorassoziierten extrazellulären Matrix 14 1.3. Bedeutung der radiotracerbasierten Bildgebung in der Wirkstoffentwicklung 19 2. Strukturelle und biochemische Aspekte von Matrix-modifizierenden Enzymen: Cystein-Cathepsine, Lysyloxidasen und Transglutaminase 2 24 2.1. Cystein-Cathepsine 24 2.2. Funktionen von Cystein-Cathepsinen in der Tumorprogression 27 2.3. Lysyloxidasen 32 2.4. Funktionen von Lysyloxidasen in der Tumorprogression 36 2.5. Transglutaminase 2 42 2.6. Funktionen der Transglutaminase 2 in der Tumorprogression 46 3. Stand der Entwicklung von Inhibitoren der betrachteten Matrix-modifizierenden Enzyme 50 3.1. Inhibitoren von Cystein-Cathepsinen 50 3.2. Inhibitoren von Lysyloxidasen 61 3.3. Inhibitoren der Transglutaminase 2 64 4. Stand der Entwicklung von Bildgebungssonden für die betrachteten Matrix-modifizierenden Enzyme 70 4.1. Sonden für Cystein-Cathepsine 70 4.2. Sonden für Lysyloxidasen 74 4.3. Sonden für die Transglutaminase 2 76 5. Eigene Arbeiten zur Entwicklung von Radiotracern einschließlich der Identifikation, Synthese und Evaluierung geeigneter Liganden zur Bildgebung der vorgestellten Targetklassen 80 5.1. Entwicklung zu Cystein-Cathepsine 80 5.1.1. Auswahl der Leitverbindungen 80 5.1.2. Synthese und radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines 18F-markierten Azadipeptidnitrils 81 5.1.3. Synthese und radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines 11C-markierten Azadipeptidnitrils 87 5.1.4. Cyanohydrazide als potentielle chemoselektive Markierungsbausteine 91 5.1.5. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 94 5.2. Lysyloxidasen 95 5.2.1. Auswahl der Leitverbindungen 95 5.2.2. Entwicklung einer Methode zur regioselektiven Markierung von Peptiden mit Fluor-18 97 5.2.3. Synthese und Konformationsanalyse eines N-Telopeptid-abgeleiteten Cyclopeptids 103 5.2.4. Radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung von N-Telopeptid-abgeleiteten Peptiden im Melanom-Xenograft-Mausmodell 109 5.2.5. Radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines N-Telopeptid-abgeleiteten Peptides in murinen Mammakarzinommodellen 114 5.2.6. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 118 5.3. Transglutaminase 2 121 5.3.1. Auswahl der Leitverbindungen 121 5.3.2. Entwicklung von Assaymethoden und Synthese der dafür benötigten Substratverbindungen 123 5.3.3. Synthese und in-vitro-pharmakologische Charakterisierung von Nε-Acryloyllysinpiperaziden als irreversible Inhibitoren 137 5.3.4. 18F-Markierung und radiopharmakologische Charakterisierung eines Nε-Acryloyllysinpiperazids als aktivitätsbasierte Sonde 152 5.3.5. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 167 6. Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen / Summary and Conclusions 171 7. Literaturverzeichnis 177 8. Kumulative Zusammenstellung der publizierten Arbeiten 243 8.1. Veröffentlichte Arbeiten zur Entwicklung Cystein-Cathepsin-gerichteter Radiotracer und Cyanohydraziden als potentielle Markierungsbausteine 243 8.1.1. Übersichtsartikel: “Cysteine cathepsins: their role in tumor progression and recent trends in the development of imaging probes” 243 8.1.2. Originalartikel: “Synthesis and Radiopharmacological Characterisation of a Fluorine-18-Labelled Azadipeptide Nitrile as a Potential PET Tracer for in vivo Imaging of Cysteine Cathepsins” 280 8.1.3. Originalartikel: “Synthesis and Radiopharmacological Characterisation of an 11C‐labelled azadipeptide nitrile as potential PET tracer for imaging of cysteine cathepsins” 304 8.1.4. Originalartikel: “Synthesis and X-ray Crystal Structure of N’-Cyano-N,N’-dimethyl-4-nitrobenzohydrazide” 319 8.2. Veröffentlichte Arbeiten zur Entwicklung Lysyloxidase-gerichteter Radiotracer und zur selektiven 18F-Markierung Lysin-enthaltender Peptide 328 8.2.1. Originalartikel: “Site-selective radiolabeling of peptides by 18F-fluorobenzoylation with [18F]SFB in solution and on solid phase: a comparative study” 328 8.2.2. Originalartikel: “Synthesis, 18F-labelling and radiopharmacological characterisation of the C-terminal 30mer of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin as a potential claudin-targeting peptide” 350 8.2.3. Originalartikel: “Cyclopeptides containing the DEKS motif as conformationally restricted collagen telopeptide analogues: synthesis and conformational analysis” 388 8.2.4. Originalartikel: “ Evaluation of Fluorine-18-Labeled α1(I)-N-Telopeptide Analogs as Substrate-Based Radiotracers for PET Imaging of Melanoma-Associated Lysyl Oxidase” 428 8.2.5. Originalartikel: “Targeting lysyl oxidase for molecular imaging in breast cancer” 453 8.3. Veröffentlichte Arbeiten zur Entwicklung von TGase 2-gerichteten Radiotracern sowie von Substratverbindungen und Assaymethoden für dieses Enzym 470 8.3.1. Übersichtsartikel: “Tissue transglutaminase: An emerging target for therapy and imaging” 470 8.3.2. Originalartikel: ”Synthesis and Kinetic Characterisation of Water‐Soluble Fluorogenic Acyl Donors for Transglutaminase 2“ 487 8.3.3. Originalartikel: “Solution-phase synthesis of the fluorogenic TGase 2 acyl donor Z-Glu(HMC)-Gly-OH and its use for inhibitor and amine substrate characterisation” 543 8.3.4. Originalartikel: “A fluorescence anisotropy-based assay for determining the activity of tissue transglutaminase” 562 8.3.5. Originalartikel: “Nε-Acryloyllysine Piperazides as Irreversible Inhibitors of Transglutaminase 2: Synthesis, Structure–Activity Relationships, and Pharmacokinetic Profiling” 589

No / Flavonoids are plant-derived polyphenolic compounds with neuroprotective properties. Recent work suggests that, in addition to acting as hydrogen donors, they activate protective signalling pathways. The anti-oxidant response element (ARE) promotes the expression of protective proteins including those required for glutathione synthesis (xCT cystine antiporter, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase and glutathione synthase). The use of a luciferase reporter (ARE-luc) assay showed that the dietary flavan-3-ol (-)epicatechin activates this pathway in primary cortical astrocytes but not neurones. We also examined the distribution of NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), a key transcription factor in ARE-mediated gene expression. We found, using immunocytochemistry, that Nrf2 accumulated in the nuclei of astrocytes following exposure to tert-butylhydroquinone (100 microM) and (-)epicatechin (100 nM). (-)Epicatechin signalling via Nrf2 was inhibited by wortmannin implicating a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent pathway. Finally, (-)epicatechin increased glutathione levels in astrocytes consistent with an up-regulation of ARE-mediated gene expression. Together, this suggests that flavonoids may be cytoprotective by increasing anti-oxidant gene expression.